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The birth of modern astronomy:

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Beteilige Person:	Habing, Harm J. 1937- (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	Cham Springer 2018
Schriftenreihe:	Historical & cultural astronomy
Schlagwörter:	Geschichte 1945-2015 Astronomy History Astronomie
Links:	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=031251652&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=031251652&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
Umfang:	XLII, 565 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme 24 cm
ISBN:	9783319990811
ISSN:	2509-310X

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Datensatz im Suchindex

_version_	1819287571965935616
adam_text	CONTENTS PART 1 1945-1984: ANYTHING GOES 1 2 1945-1960: NEW OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND THE BEGINNING OF RADIO ASTRONOMY ................................................. 3 1.1 OPTICAL ASTRONOMY ...................................... 3 THE 200-INCH HALE TELESCOPE AND THE 48-INCH SCHMIDT ......... 3 PHOTO-ELECTRIC LIGHT MEASUREMENTS IN PLACE OF PHOTOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS ............................ 7 THE `PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY : A PUBLIC TREASURE TROVE ........................................ 8 1.2 THE RISE OF RADIO ASTRONOMY .............................. 9 THE EXISTENCE OF `RADIO STARS ............................ 13 THE FIRST IDENTIFICATIONS OF `RADIO STARS WITH OPTICALLY KNOWN OBJECTS ........................................ 17 THE 21-CM LINE: ANOTHER NEW FIELD OF RESEARCH ............. 20 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION .................................. 23 1954 BREAKTHROUGH: BAADE AND MINKOWSKI IDENTIFIED THE CYGNUS A RADIO SOURCE ......................... 26 1955: RADIO ASTRONOMY GIVES A NEW VISION OF THE UNIVERSE .................................... 28 1.3 THE LEGACY OF THE V2: X-RADIATION FROM THE SUN .............. 29 SPUTNIK AND THE SPACE AGE ............................... 29 1.4 THE REMARKABLE BEGINNING OF INFRARED ASTRONOMY ............. 31 REFERENCES ................................................. 32 1945-1959: STARS AND GALAXIES ................................ 33 2.1 STARS .................................................. 33 STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE .............................. 36 THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STELLAR ATMOSPHERES ........... 36 IX $ B1IOTHEK DEUTSCHES MUSEUM Y .. HLUENCHE A X CONTENTS HOW STARS CHANGE AS THEY BECOME OLDER: THE SOLUTION TO THE MYSTERY OF THE RED GIANTS .......................... 37 CLOSELY COUPLED BINARY STARS AND NOVAE; FLOWS OF MATTER AND DISKS ....................................... 42 2.2 GALAXIES ............................................... 46 THE CONCEPT OF `STELLAR POPULATIONS ....................... 46 THE MILKY WAY ........................................ 47 M3 1, THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA ............................. 55 CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES AND SUPERCLUSTERS ...................... 56 THE HUBBLE CONSTANT AND THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE ............. 58 GAMOW S PREDICTION OF A REMNANT OF THE BIG BANG ............ 59 `STEADY STATE THEORY AND CONFLICT ......................... 59 REFERENCES ................................................. 63 3 1960-1974: DEVELOPING NEW INSTRUMENTS ....................... 65 3.1 OPTICAL ASTRONOMY ...................................... 65 PLANS FOR NEW AND BIGGER TELESCOPES ...................... 65 BELOW THE SEEING LIMIT ................................. 69 3.2 RADIO ASTRONOMY ....................................... 69 3.3 INFRARED ASTRONOMY ...................................... 75 3.4 X-RAY AND GAMMA ASTRONOMY ............................. 77 X-RAY ASTRONOMY ...................................... 77 GAMMA RADIATION ...................................... 81 3.5 COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION ............................... 82 3.6 OBSERVATIONS AT HIGH ALTITUDE .............................. 83 REFERENCES ................................................. 85 4 1960-1974: STARS ........................................... 87 4.1 HOW NATURE CREATES STARS ................................. 87 DARK CLOUDS AND MOLECULES .............................. 87 THE ORION NEBULA AS MODEL .............................. 94 T TAU AND HAEBE STARS ................................. 96 ASSOCIATIONS OF YOUNG STARS .............................. 97 COCOON STARS: STARS UNDER CONSTRUCTION ..................... 99 4.2 THE SPECTRUM AND THE LIFE COURSE OF STARS ................... 99 MODELS FOR THE ATMOSPHERE OF STARS ........................ 101 TRACKS OF EVOLUTION IN THE HR DIAGRAM ..................... 102 THE LIFECYCLE OF LIGHT STARS SUCH AS THE SUN ................. 105 THE FORMATION OF `DUST PARTICLES AND THE EMISSION OF GAS BY AGB STARS .................................... 106 CHROMOSPHERE, CORONA AND MAGNETIC ACTIVITY ............... 107 SOLAR OSCILLATIONS OR HELIOSEISMOLOGY ...................... 108 THE LIFECYCLE OF THE MID-WEIGHT AND THE HEAVY STARS ......... 108 CONTENTS XI LOSS OF MASS OF HEAVY MAIN SEQUENCE STARS ................. 109 WOLF-RAYET STARS, AN EVOLUTIONARY ENIGMA .................. 110 VERY HEAVY STARS, THE HYPERGIANTS ......................... 111 ..................................... CLOSE BINARY STARS 113 4.3 DYING AND EXTINCT STARS .................................. 115 WHITE DWARFS AND PLANETARY NEBULAE ....................... 115 ........................................... SUPERNOVAE 117 NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES ............................ 124 4.4 MYSTERIOUS SOURCES OF GAMMA RADIATION .................... 138 REFERENCES ................................................. 139 5 1960-1974: GALAXIES ......................................... 141 5.1 GALAXIES WITHOUT STRONG RADIO RADIATION ..................... 141 HOW ARE GALAXIES FORMED? ............................... 142 EVOLUTION OF GALAXIES OR THE RELATION BETWEEN THE AGE OF A STAR AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IT CONTAINS .......... 143 GAS IN THE DISK OF OUR GALAXY ............................ 144 CENTER OF OUR GALAXY AND OF THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA ........... 146 STABILITY OF THE DISK OF OUR GALAXY AND A DARK MATTER HALO ..... 150 HOW ARE THE SPIRAL ARMS MAINTAINED? ...................... 150 INTRUDERS IN OUR GALAXY .................................. 151 COLLISIONS AND MERGERS BETWEEN GALAXIES ................... 154 M82: MASSIVE STAR FORMATION? ............................ 155 STARBURST GALAXIES ...................................... 157 DO WE KNOW ALL THE TYPES OF GALAXIES? ..................... 158 1974: A NEW PARADIGM-THE EXISTENCE OF DARK MATTER ....... 158 5.2 RADIO GALAXIES AND OTHER UNUSUAL GALAXIES ................... 162 RADIO GALAXIES ........................................ 164 SEYFERT GALAXIES ....................................... 165 QUASARS .............................................. 166 IN SUMMARY: GALAXIES WITH ACTIVE NUCLEI ( AGNS ) ........... 173 5.3 LARGE AND LARGEST SCALE .................................. 174 CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS ............................... 174 COSMOLOGY: THE OUTLOOK IN 1961 .......................... 178 1965: BACKGROUND RADIATION: A NEW FOUNDATION FOR COSMOLOGY .................................... 180 AN INDEPENDENT ARGUMENT ABOUT THE HISTORY OF THE EARLY UNIVERSE ........................................ 185 FOCUSING ATTENTION ON THE PAST: HOW WERE THE CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES FORMED? .................................... 186 REFERENCES ................................................. 188 6 1975-1984: DEVELOPMENTS IN INSTRUMENTS ....................... 191 6.1 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE ................................... 191 6.2 RESEARCH FROM SPACE ..................................... 192 XII CONTENTS 6.3 THE GROWING SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPUTERS: AUTOMATION ........... 193 6.4 INNOVATIONS IN OPTICAL ASTRONOMY .......................... 194 TELESCOPES ............................................ 195 DETECTORS ............................................. 196 MORE PRECISE SPECTROSCOPY ............................... 197 MULTIFIBER SPECTROSCOPY ................................. 197 6.5 RADIO ASTRONOMY ....................................... 198 6.6 INFRARED ASTRONOMY ...................................... 202 AIRCRAFT, BALLOONS AND SATELLITES ........................... 202 THE CURIOUS AFCRL CATALOG ............................. 203 IRAS, THE `INFRARED ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE .................. 204 6.7 THE FAR ULTRAVIOLET ...................................... 208 6.8 X-RAY RADIATION ........................................ 209 6.9 GAMMA RADIATION ....................................... 209 6.10 GEV AND TEV PHOTONS ................................... 211 REFERENCES ................................................. 212 7 1975-1984: STARS ........................................... 213 7.1 STAR FORMATION ......................................... 213 DARK CLOUDS AND COMPACTION ............................. 213 YOUNG STARS AND DARK CLOUDS ............................. 218 HIGH SPEEDS, `JETS AND HERBIG-HARO OBJECTS ................ 219 DISKS OF `DUST AROUND YOUNG STARS: REMAINS OF A PLANET-FORMING PROCESS? ................................ 221 7.2 STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE ............................... 225 LIGHT STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE: ACTIVITY .................. 225 THE EXPULSION OF MATTER BY HIGH-MASS STARS ................ 227 BLOWING BUBBLES ....................................... 230 THE MOST MASSIVE STARS AND THE WOLF-RAYET STARS ............. 231 X-RADIATION FROM HIGH-MASS STARS ........................ 233 7.3 THE END AND WHAT REMAINS ............................... 233 DISINTEGRATING LOW-MASS STARS AND THE FORMATION OF WHITE DWARFS ......................................... 234 SUPERNOVAE ........................................... 237 WHITE DWARFS .......................................... 242 NEUTRON STARS AND STELLAR BLACK HOLES ...................... 246 X-RAY STARS: A SUMMARY FROM 1985 ....................... 251 ACCRETION DISKS ....................................... 257 NEW: THE SS433 MICROQUASAR ............................ 258 NEW: SGR, THE SOFT GAMMA REPEATER ...................... 260 REFERENCES ................................................. 262 8 1975-1984: GALAXIES AND THE UNIVERSE .......................... 265 8.1 NEW PHYSICS ........................................... 265 GRAVITATIONAL LENSES .................................... 265 INVISIBLE OR `DARK MATTER ................................ 268 CONTENTS XIII 8.2 GALAXIES WITHOUT AN ACTIVE NUCLEUS ......................... 273 ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES ...................................... 273 ........................ ................ SPIRAL GALAXIES 275 8.3 RADIO GALAXIES: GALAXIES WITH AN ACTIVE NUCLEUS .............. 279 SPEEDS GREATER THAN THE SPEED OF LIGHT? .................... 279 MASSIVE BLACK HOLES .................................... 280 8.4 MERGERS, CANNIBALISM AND MASSIVE STAR FORMATION ............. 282 8.5 DEEPER IN THE UNIVERSE ................................... 283 MORE RED SHIFT MEASUREMENTS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE COSMIC WEB ....................................... 284 QUASARS .............................................. 287 THE QUASAR POPULATION PAST AND PRESENT .................... 289 BETWEEN GALAXIES: THE LYMAN FOREST ....................... 290 CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES .................................... 290 THE BUTCHER-OEMLER EFFECT ............................... 294 8.6 STRUCTURE IN THE UNIVERSE .................................. 296 BACKGROUND RADIATION .................................. 296 INFLATION! ............................................. 296 FIRST ATTEMPTS AT AN EXPLANATION OF THE `STRUCTURE ............ 297 REFERENCES ................................................. 299 PART II 1985-2015: LONG-PLANNED EXPLORATION 9 1985-2015: PLANS, PEOPLE, ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTRUMENTS ......... 303 9.1 PEOPLE AND THEIR PLANS .................................... 303 WHAT THE ASTRONOMERS WANTED ............................ 303 ORGANIZATIONS AND FINANCES .............................. 306 SOCIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ............................... 307 INTERNET, COMPUTERS, SOFTWARE ............................ 307 LEGACY PROGRAMS ...................................... 308 9.2 OPTICAL TELESCOPES ...................................... 310 HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE ................................. 310 MORE AND LARGER TELESCOPES IN DRY CONDITIONS ............... 311 SHARPENING THE IMAGES: ADAPTIVE OPTICS .................... 312 EXTREMELY LARGE TELESCOPES .............................. 312 ROBOT TELESCOPES AND SURVEYS ............................ 314 9.3 SATELLITES FOR ASTROMETRY: HIPPARCOS AND GAIA ................ 315 9.4 INFRARED TELESCOPES ...................................... 316 GROUND-BASED INFRARED TELESCOPES AND SURVEYS .............. 317 TELESCOPES IN SPACE .................................... 319 9.5 MILLIMETER AND SUB-MILLIMETER TELESCOPES .................... 321 RADIATION AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN 1 CM AND 1 MM ............ 321 RADIATION AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN I AND 0.1 MM ............. 322 XIV CONTENTS 9.6 RADIO ASTRONOMY ....................................... 323 SINGLE-DISH TELESCOPES .................................. 323 APERTURE SYNTHESIS TELESCOPES ............................ 326 1994: SKA, A GRAND NEW PLAN ........................... 326 9.7 ASTRONOMY OF THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET AND X-RADIATION ......... 327 EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET TELESCOPES ........................... 327 X-RAY TELESCOPES ...................................... 327 9.8 DETECTING PHOTONS WITH THE HIGHEST ENERGY ................... 331 DETECTING GAMMA RADIATION .............................. 331 VHE: PHOTONS OF VERY HIGH ENERGY ........................ 332 REFERENCES ................................................. 335 10 1995-2015: MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS AND FAILED STARS ............... 337 10.1 BROWN DWARFS OR FAILED STARS ............................. 337 PREDICTING, NAMING AND DISCOVERING BROWN DWARFS .......... 337 MORE BROWN DWARFS ................................... 340 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT BROWN DWARFS ............. 341 SPECTRA AND THE TYPES OF BROWN DWARFS ................... 342 THE ATMOSPHERE ...................................... 342 CIRCUMSTELLAR DISKS AND PLANETS .......................... 343 ACTIVITY ............................................. 343 HOW BROWN DWARFS WERE FORMED ......................... 344 10.2 LIGHT STARS ............................................ 344 THE EXTERIOR OF THE SUN ................................. 344 BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE SUN ............................ 347 HELIOSEISMOLOGY ...................................... 348 NEUTRINOS FROM THE SUN ................................. 351 OTHER LIGHT STARS THAN THE SUN: ASTEROSEISMOLOGY ............ 352 10.3 MASSIVE STARS ......................................... 355 WHERE ARE THEY? ...................................... 355 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE STARS IS STILL NOT FULLY UNDERSTOOD ...................................... 355 REFERENCES ................................................. 358 11 1995-2015: SOMETHING COMPLETELY NEW: EXOPLANETS .............. 361 11.1 HOW TO FIND PLANETS OF STARS OTHER THAN THE SUN? .............. 361 THE INITIAL DISCOVERIES ................................. 361 MORE DETECTION TECHNIQUES ............................. 366 SPACE TELESCOPES: COROT AND KEPLER ..................... 368 11.2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM AS AN EXAMPLE .......................... 370 THE KANT-LAPLACE THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ... 370 LATE HEAVY BOMBARDMENT; MIGRATION; WATER ON EARTH; THE NICE MODEL ....................................... 371 WARNING: THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS SMALL-AT LEAST IN ASTRONOMICAL TERMS ................................... 372 CONTENTS XV 11.3 PLANET FORMATION ....................................... 373 FROM DUST PARTICLES TO PLANETESIMALS ...................... 373 THE STRUCTURE OF PLANET-FORMING DISKS .................... 374 THE PROBLEM OF THE HOT JUPITERS .......................... 375 PLANET ATMOSPHERES ................................... 375 SUMMARY: WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED ABOUT THE PLANETARY SYSTEMS? .................................... 376 REFERENCES ................................................. 379 12 1985-2015: THE FORMATION OF STARS ............................ 381 12.1 SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF LOW-MASS STARS ......... 381 FINALLY: A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY ........................ 381 JETS ARE COMMON PHENOMENA ............................ 384 TTAU STARS HAVE AN ACTIVE SURFACE AND OFTEN EMIT LOTS OF X-RADIATION ....................................... 384 SILHOUETTED DISKS ..................................... 385 STAGES OF STAR FORMATION INDICATED BY MOLECULAR SPECIES ...... 387 12.2 MOLECULES GALORE ...................................... 389 THE TREASURES OF THE COLLECTOR ........................... 389 SMALL GRAINS OF DUST, THE FORMATION OF ICE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES ................................... 389 12.3 THE FORMATION OF HIGH-MASS STARS ......................... 392 HOW A HIGH-MASS BINARY STAR WAS DISCOVERED IN STATU NASCENDI ....................................... 392 12.4 THE CHANGING MORPHOLOGY OF CLOUDS ...................... 398 A LIFECYCLE .......................................... 398 DENSER AND DARKER CLUMPS-SNAKES ...................... 399 THE IMPORTANCE OF FILAMENTS ............................ 400 12.5 THE FORMATION OF STAR CLUSTERS, ILLUSTRATED BY THE W3/W4/W5 REGION .................................... 402 REFERENCES ................................................. 405 13 1995-2015: WHAT IS LEFT: COMPACT OBJECTS ...................... 407 13.1 WHITE DWARFS ......................................... 408 13.2 NEUTRON STARS ......................................... 413 PULSARS .............................................. 413 PULSAR WINDS ......................................... 414 BLACK WIDOWS ........................................ 416 MAGNETARS, APX AND SGR .............................. 416 A SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEUTRON STARS .......... 418 13.3 X-RAY BINARY STARS: THE HOSTS FOR NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES ........................................... 419 COMMON PROPERTIES OF X-RAY BINARY STARS ................. 419 BLACK HOLES .......................................... 425 ULTRALUMINOUS X-RAY SOURCES (ULXS) .................... 429 REFERENCES ................................................. 430 XVI CONTENTS 14 1995-2015: TRANSIENT PHENOMENA, MERGERS AND EXPLOSIONS ........ 433 14.1 MICROLENSING: SEARCHING FOR INVISIBLE OBJECTS ................ 434 14.2 PSEUDO SUPERNOVAE OR SUPERNOVA IMPOSTORS ................. 436 14.3 RED NOVAE: ARE WE SEEING A `COMMON ENVELOPE EVENT? ....... 437 14.4 RADIO AND INFRARED TRANSIENTS ............................. 441 FAST RADIO BURSTS ..................................... 441 14.5 CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVAE ............................... 442 MANY MORE SUPERNOVAE FOUND, AND THE COMPLEXITY INCREASES ... 442 THE STAR BEFORE THE SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION .................. 444 SN1987A: FINALLY A SUPERNOVA CLOSE BY ................... 445 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE CORE OF A SUPERNOVA ....................................... 451 14.6 GAMMA RAY BURSTS (OR GRBS) ............................ 453 14.7 TYPE LA SUPERNOVAE ..................................... 457 14.8 GRAVITY WAVES ......................................... 460 REFERENCES ................................................. 461 15 1985-1995: GALAXIES ......................................... 463 15.1 ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES ...................................... 463 A NUMBER OF VERY DIFFERENT TYPES ........................ 463 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STELLAR POPULATION .................... 464 X-RAYS PROVE THE PRESENCE OF DARK MATTER IN AND AROUND ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES ............................... 465 15.2 DISK GALAXIES ......................................... 465 DISK GALAXIES: THE FORMATION OF NEW STARS ................ 466 THE CENTER OF OUR MILKY WAY AND THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA: VERY MASSIVE BLACK HOLES? ....................... 466 STARS FROM PREHISTORY .................................. 469 CHEMICAL ABUNDANCES IN OTHER SPIRAL GALAXIES .............. 473 15.3 DWARF GALAXIES ........................................ 473 15.4 MERGERS AND STARBURSTS .................................. 474 TOO CLOSE TO BIG BROTHER ................................ 475 THE MAGELLANIC STREAM AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE SMALL MAGELLANIC CLOUD ..................................... 476 M82 ................................................ 477 SUPER WINDS ......................................... 478 ARP 220: AN UNUSUAL CASE .............................. 480 15.5 ACTIVE NUCLEI OF GALAXIES (AGNS) ......................... 481 QUASARS ............................................. 481 UNIFICATION .......................................... 483 MASSIVE BLACK HOLES IN THE CENTER OF GALAXIES .............. 485 DISKS AROUND MASSIVE BLACK HOLES ....................... 487 15.6 CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES .................................... 487 GRAVITATIONAL LENSES ................................... 489 15.7 LARGE SCALE AND EVEN LARGER: COSMOLOGY ................... 492 VOIDS AND WALLS ....................................... 492 CONTENTS XVII INTERGALACTIC MATTER, THE LYMAN WOOD ..................... 493 HOW FAR CAN WE LOOK BACK INTO THE PAST? ................... 494 15.8 BACKGROUND RADIATION .................................. 496 COSMOGONY, OR HOW DID THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE COME ABOUT? ......................................... 499 ............................................. .... REFERENCES 502 16 1995-2005: GALAXIES AND ANOTHER REVOLUTION .................... 505 16.1 THE CONCORDANCE MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE .................... 506 THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE IS ACCELERATING .............. 506 `ANISOTROPIES AND FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE UNIVERSE .... 510 A `CONCORDANT MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE .................... 513 16.2 ACDM: A SUCCESSFUL THEORY FOR THE ORIGIN OF THE COSMIC WEB AND ITS STARS AND GALAXIES ..................... 514 16.3 THE EXISTENCE OF SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES AND THEIR RELATION TO THE SURROUNDING GALAXY ........................ 519 SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES DO EXIST ...................... 520 AN UNEXPECTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GALAXIES AND MASSIVE BLACK HOLES ................................... 522 16.4 LARGE SURVEYS ......................................... 524 THE SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY ............................ 524 2 DFRGS: THE `TWO-DIMENSIONAL FIBER GALAXY ...................................... REDSHIFT SURVEY 530 OTHER SURVEYS ........................................ 532 REFERENCES ................................................. 533 17 2005-2015: HARVEST TIME .................................... 535 17.1 SEARCHING FOR HIGH-Z GALAXIES ............................ 536 THE CFHT SURVEY ..................................... 538 LYMAN-BREAK GALAXIES: Z= 2-3 .......................... 539 FURTHER THAN Z=3..................................... 540 17.2 STAR FORMATION THROUGH THE AGES .......................... 540 GAS CLOUDS AT HIGH Z ................................... 540 NEWLY FORMED STARS ................................... 541 17.3 CLUSTERS GALORE ........................................ 544 THE BULLET CLUSTER: UNEXPECTED EVIDENCE OF THE EXISTENCE OF DARK MATTER ............................... 545 17.4 EARLY TIMES: RE-IONIZATION ............................... 546 QUASARS AND RE-IONIZATION .............................. 546 RE-IONIZATION AND THE 21 CM LINE ......................... 548 17.5 BARYONIC ACOUSTIC OSCILLATIONS ............................ 550 REFERENCES ................................................. 552 EPILOGUE ...................................................... 555 INDEX ......................................................... 557 Contents Part I 1 2 1945-1984: Anything Goes 1945-1960: New Optical Instruments and the Beginning of Radio Astronomy...................................................................................................... 1.1 Optical Astronomy ............................................................................... The 200-inch Hale Telescope and the 48-inch Schmidt................. Photo-Electric Light Measurements in Place of Photochemical Measurements ......................................................... The ‘Palomar Observatory Sky Survey’: A Public Treasure Trove ................................................................................... 1.2 The Rise of Radio Astronomy............................................................. The Existence of ‘Radio Stars’......................................................... The First Identifications of ‘Radio Stars’ with Optically Known Objects................................................................................... The 21 -cm Line: Another New Field of Research......................... Synchrotron Radiation ...................................................................... 1954 Breakthrough: Baade and Minkowski Identified the Cygnus A Radio Source ................................................... 1955 : Radio Astronomy Gives a New Vision of the Universe .......................................................................... 1.3 The Legacy of the V2: X-Radiation from the Sun ............................ Sputnik and the Space Age................................................................ 1.4 The Remarkable Beginning of Infrared Astronomy.......................... References ...................................................................................................... 1945-1959: Stars and Galaxies.................................................................. 2.1 Stars....................................................................................................... Stars on the Main Sequence ............................................................. The Chemical Composition of Stellar Atmospheres ..................... 3 3 3 7 8 9 13 17 20 23 26 28 29 29 31 32 33 33 36 36 ix x Contents How Stars change as they become Older: the Solution to the Mystery of the Red Giants ................................................. Closely Coupled Binary Stars and Novae; Flows of Matter and Disks............................................................................ 2.2 Galaxies............................................................................................ The Concept of ‘Stellar Populations’ ........................................... The Milky Way.............................................................................. М31, the Andromeda Nebula ........................................................ Clusters of Galaxies and Superclusters......................................... The Hubble Constant and the Age of the Universe........................ Gamow’s Prediction of a Remnant of the Big Bang...................... ‘Steady State Theory’ and Conflict................................................ References ................................................................................................ 42 46 46 47 55 56 58 59 59 63 3 1960-1974: Developing New Instruments ............................................ 3.1 Optical Astronomy .......................................................................... Plans for New and Bigger Telescopes .......................................... Below the Seeing Limit ................................................................ 3.2 Radio Astronomy ............................................................................ 3.3 Infrared Astronomy.......................................................................... 3.4 X-Ray and Gamma Astronomy........................................................ X-Ray Astronomy.......................................................................... Gamma Radiation.......................................................................... 3.5 Computers and Automation ............................................................ 3.6 Observations at High Altitude.......................................................... References ................................................................................................ 65 65 65 69 69 75 77 77 81 82 83 85 4 1960-1974: Stars .................................................................................... 4.1 How Nature Creates Stars............................................................... Dark Clouds and Molecules.......................................................... The Orion Nebula as Model.......................................................... T Tau and HAeBe Stars ................................................................ Associations of Young Stars.......................................................... Cocoon Stars: Stars under Construction........................................ 4.2 The Spectrum and the Life Course of Stars .................................... Models for the Atmosphere of Stars.............................................. Tracks of Evolution in the HR Diagram........................................ The Lifecycle of Light Stars such as the Sun................................ The Formation of ‘Dust Particles’ and the Emission of Gas by AGB Stars...................................................................... Chromosphere, Corona and Magnetic Activity ............................ Solar Oscillations or Helioseismology.......................................... The Lifecycle of the Mid-Weight and the Heavy Stars ................ 87 87 87 94 96 97 99 99 101 102 105 37 106 107 108 108 Contents xi Loss of Mass of Heavy Main Sequence Stars.................................. 109 Wolf-Rayet Stars, an Evolutionary Enigma.................................... 110 Very Heavy Stars, the Hypergiants................................................... Ill Close Binary Stars ............................................................................. 113 4.3 Dying and Extinct Stars ........................................................................ 115 White Dwarfs and Planetary Nebulae............................................... 115 Supernovae......................................................................................... 117 Neutron Stars and Black Holes......................................................... 124 4.4 Mysterious Sources of Gamma Radiation ........................................ 138 References ........................................................................................................ 139 5 1960-1974: Galaxies....................................................................................... 141 5.1 Galaxies without Strong Radio Radiation.............................................141 How are Galaxies formed?............................................................... 142 Evolution of Galaxies or the Relation between the Age of a Star and the Chemical Elements it Contains................... 143 Gas in the Disk of our Galaxy ......................................................... 144 Center of our Galaxy and of the Andromeda Nebula..................... 146 Stability of the Disk of our Galaxy and a Dark Matter Halo........ 150 How are the Spiral Arms Maintained? ............................................. 150 Intruders in our Galaxy...................................................................... 151 Collisions and Mergers between Galaxies...................................... 154 M82: Massive Star Formation?......................................................... 155 Starburst Galaxies............................................................................... 157 Do we know all the Types of Galaxies?.......................................... 158 1974: A New Paradigm—the Existence of Dark Matter ............. 158 5.2 Radio Galaxies and other Unusual Galaxies.........................................162 Radio Galaxies ................................................................................... 164 Seyfert Galaxies ................................................................................. 165 Quasars................................................................................................ 166 In Summary: Galaxies with Active Nuclei (‘AGNs’)..................... 173 5.3 Large and Largest Scale .........................................................................174 Clusters and Superclusters ................................................................ 174 Cosmology: the Outlook in 1961 ..................................................... 178 1965: Background Radiation: A New Foundation for Cosmology .......................................................................... 180 An Independent Argument about the History of the Early Universe ................................................................................... 185 Focusing Attention on the Past: How were the Clusters of Galaxies formed? ........................................................................... 186 References ...................................................................................................... 188 6 1975-1984: Developments in Instruments................................................. 191 6.1 Planning for the Future...........................................................................191 6.2 Research from Space.............................. 192 Contents xii 6.3 6.4 The Growing Significance of Computers: Automation....................... 193 Innovations in Optical Astronomy .......................................................194 Telescopes........................................................................................... 195 Detectors............................................................................................. 196 More Precise Spectroscopy............................................................... 197 Multifiber Spectroscopy................................................................... 197 6.5 Radio Astronomy .................................................................................. 198 6.6 Infrared Astronomy................................................................................ 202 Aircraft, Balloons and Satellites....................................................... 202 The Curious AFCRL Catalog........................................................... 203 IRAS, the‘Infrared Astronomical Satellite’................................... 204 6.7 The Far Ultraviolet ................................................................................ 208 6.8 X-Ray Radiation.................................................................................... 209 6.9 Gamma Radiation.................................................................................. 209 6.10 GEV and TEV Photons..........................................................................211 References ........................................................................................................212 7 1975-1984: Stars ...........................................................................................213 7.1 Star Formation .......................................................................................213 Dark Clouds and Compaction........................................................... 213 Young Stars and Dark Clouds........................................................... 218 High Speeds,‘Jets’and Herbig-Haro Objects ............................... 219 Disks of ‘Dust’ Around Young Stars: Remains of a Planet-Forming Process? ................................................................. 221 7.2 Stars on the Main Sequence ................................................................. 225 Light Stars on the Main Sequence: Activity.................................... 225 The Expulsion of Matter by High-Mass Stars ................................ 227 Blowing Bubbles................................................................................ 230 The Most Massive Stars and the Wolf-Rayet Stars......................... 231 X-Radiation from High-Mass Stars ................................................. 233 7.3 The End and what Remains ................................................................. 233 Disintegrating Low-Mass Stars and the Formation of White Dwarfs ..................................................................................... 234 Supernovae......................................................................................... 237 White dwarfs....................................................................................... 242 Neutron Stars and Stellar Black Holes............................................ 246 X-Ray Stars: A Summary from 1985 ............................................... 251 Accretion Disks ................................................................................. 257 New: The SS433 Microquasar ......................................................... 258 New: SGR, the Soft Gamma Repeater............................................. 260 References ........................................................................................................262 8 1975-1984: Galaxies and the Universe....................................................... 265 8.1 New Physics .......................................................................................... 265 Gravitational Lenses.......................................................................... 265 Invisible or ‘Dark’ Matter.................................................................. 268 xiii Contents 8.2 Galaxies Without an Active Nucleus.....................................................273 Elliptical Galaxies.............................................................................. 273 Spiral Galaxies ................................................................................... 275 8.3 Radio Galaxies: Galaxies with an Active Nucleus..............................279 Speeds Greater than the Speed of Light?........................................ 279 Massive Black Holes.......................................................................... 280 8.4 Mergers, Cannibalism and Massive Star Formation............................282 8.5 Deeper in the Universe .......................................................................... 283 More Red shift Measurements and the Discovery of the Cosmic Web ................................................................................. 284 Quasars............................................................................................... 287 The Quasar Population Past and Present ........................................ 289 Between Galaxies: the Lyman Forest............................................... 290 Clusters of Galaxies .......................................................................... 290 The Butcher-Oemler Effect............................................................... 294 8.6 Structure in the Universe........................................................................296 Background Radiation ...................................................................... 296 Inflation! ............................................................................................. 296 First Attempts at an Explanation of the ‘Structure’ ....................... 297 References ......................................................................................................299 Part II 9 1985-2015: Long-Planned Exploration 1985-2015: Plans, People, Organizations and Instruments.................303 9.1 People and their Plans............................................................................ 303 What the Astronomers wanted ......................................................... 303 Organizations and Finances ............................................................. 306 Sociological Observations ............................................................... 307 Internet, Computers, Software ......................................................... 307 Legacy Programs .............................................................................. 308 9.2 Optical Telescopes ................................................................................ 310 Hubble Space Telescope.................................................................... 310 More and Larger Telescopes in Dry Conditions.............................. 311 Sharpening the Images: Adaptive Optics ........................................ 312 Extremely Large Telescopes............................................................. 312 Robot Telescopes and Surveys ......................................................... 314 9.3 Satellites for Astrometry: Hipparcos and GAIA.................................. 315 9.4 Infrared Telescopes.................................................................................316 Ground-Based Infrared Telescopes and Surveys ............................ 317 Telescopes in Space .......................................................................... 319 9.5 Millimeter and Sub-Millimeter Telescopes.......................................... 321 Radiation at Wavelengths between 1 cm and 1 mm....................... 321 Radiation at Wavelengths between 1 and 0.1 mm ......................... 322 xiv Contents 9.6 Radio Astronomy .................................................................................. 323 Single-Dish Telescopes...................................................................... 323 Aperture Synthesis Telescopes......................................................... 326 1994: SKA, a Grand New Plan....................................................... 326 9.7 Astronomy of the Extreme Ultraviolet and X-Radiation ...................327 Extreme Ultraviolet Telescopes ....................................................... 327 X-Ray Telescopes.............................................................................. 327 9.8 Detecting Photons with the Highest Energy........................................331 Detecting Gamma Radiation............................................................. 331 VHE: Photons of Very High Energy................................................. 332 References ......................................................................................................335 10 1995-2015: Main-Sequence Stars and Failed Stars ............................. 337 10.1 Brown Dwarfs or Failed Stars........................................................... 337 Predicting, Naming and DiscoveringBrown Dwarfs.................... 337 More Brown Dwarfs........................................................................ 340 Theoretical Considerations about Brown Dwarfs......................... 341 Spectra and the Types of Brown Dwarfs ...................................... 342 The Atmosphere .............................................................................. 342 Circumstellar Disks and Planets..................................................... 343 Activity.............................................................................................. 343 How Brown Dwarfs were formed................................................... 344 10.2 Light Stars............................................................................................. 344 The Exterior of the Sun.................................................................... 344 Below the Surface of the Sun......................................................... 347 Helioseismology.............................................................................. 348 Neutrinos from the Sun.................................................................... 351 Other Light Stars than the Sun: Asteroseismology....................... 352 10.3 Massive Stars ....................................................................................... 355 Where are they? .............................................................................. 355 The Development of Massive Stars is still not fully understood .............................................................................. 355 References ...................................................................................................... 358 11 1995-2015: Something Completely New: Exoplanets............................361 11.1 How to Find Planets of Stars other than the Sun?..............................361 The Initial Discoveries .................................................................... 361 More Detection Techniques ........................................................... 366 Space Telescopes: CoRoT and Kepler........................................... 368 11.2 The Solar System as an Example....................................................... 370 The Kant-Laplace Theory of the Origin of our Solar System .. . 370 Late Heavy Bombardment; Migration; Water on Earth; the Nice Model................................................................................. 371 Warning: the Solar System is Small—at least in Astronomical Terms ........................................................................ 372 Contents XV 11.3 Planet Formation.................................................................................... 373 From Dust Particles to Planetesimals............................................. 373 The Structure of Planet-Forming Disks ......................................... 374 The Problem of the Hot Jupiters..................................................... 375 Planet Atmospheres ......................................................................... 375 Summary: What have we learned about the Planetary Systems?........................................................................... 376 References ........................................................................................................379 12 1985-2015: The Formation of Stars............................................................381 12.1 Successive Stages in the Formation of Low-Mass Stars................... 381 Finally: A Comprehensive Theory ................................................. 381 Jets are common Phenomena......................................................... 384 TTau Stars have an Active Surface and often emit lots of X-Radiation ................................................................................. 384 Silhouetted Disks ............................................................................. 385 Stages of Star Formation indicated by Molecular Species........... 387 12.2 Molecules Galore .................................................................................389 The Treasures of the Collector....................................................... 389 Small Grains of Dust, the Formation of Ice and Complex Molecules ........................................................................ 389 12.3 The Formation of High-Mass Stars..................................................... 392 How a High-Mass Binary Star was discovered in Statu Nascendi ................................................................................. 392 12.4 The Changing Morphology of Clouds ...............................................398 A Lifecycle....................................................................................... 398 Denser and Darker Clumps—Snakes............................................. 399 The Importance of Filaments ......................................................... 400 12.5 The Formation of Star Clusters, illustrated by the W3/W4/W5 Region ............................................................................ 402 References ........................................................................................................405 13 1995-2015: What is left:Compact Objects................................................ 407 13.1 White Dwarfs .......................................................................................408 13.2 Neutron Stars .......................................................................................413 Pulsars............................................................................................... 413 Pulsar Winds..................................................................................... 414 Black Widows................................................................................... 416 Magnetars, APX and SGR .............................................................. 416 A Summary of the Different Types of Neutron Stars................... 418 13.3 X-Ray Binary Stars: The Hosts for Neutron Stars and Black Holes........................................................................................... 419 Common Properties of X-Ray Binary Stars.................................. 419 Black Holes....................................................................................... 425 Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources (ULXs) ........................................ 429 References ........................................................................................................430 xvi Contents 14 1995-2015: Transient Phenomena, Mergers and Explosions.................433 14.1 Microlensing: Searching for Invisible Objects................................. 434 14.2 Pseudo Supernovae or Supernova Impostors ....................................436 14.3 Red Novae: Are we seeing a ‘Common Envelope Event?’.............437 14.4 Radio and Infrared Transients............................................................. 441 Fast Radio Bursts ............................................................................. 441 14.5 Core-Collapse Supernovae ..................................................................442 Many more Supernovae found, and the Complexity increases ... 442 The Star before the Supernova Explosion .................................... 444 SN1987A: Finally a Supernova close by ...................................... 445 Theoretical Considerations for the Collapse of the Core of a Supernova ................................................................................. 451 14.6 Gamma Ray Bursts (or GRBs)........................................................... 453 14.7 Type Ia Supernovae...............................................................................457 14.8 Gravity Waves....................................................................................... 460 References ........................................................................................................ 461 15 1985-1995: Galaxies....................................................................................... 463 15.1 Elliptical Galaxies.................................................................................463 A Number of very different Types ................................................. 463 Characteristics of the Stellar Population......................................... 464 X-Rays prove the Presence of Dark Matter in and around Elliptical Galaxies................................................................ 465 15.2 Disk Galaxies ....................................................................................... 465 Disk Galaxies: The Formation of New Stars ................................ 466 The Center of our Milky Way and the Andromeda Nebula: Very Massive Black Holes?............................................... 466 Stars from Prehistory ...................................................................... 469 Chemical Abundances in other Spiral Galaxies............................ 473 15.3 Dwarf Galaxies..................................................................................... 473 15.4 Mergers and Starbursts........................................................................ 474 Too close to Big Brother.................................................................. 475 The Magellanic Stream and the Structure of the Small Magellanic Cloud............................................................................. 476 M82 .................................................................................................... 477 Super Winds ..................................................................................... 478 ARP 220: an unusual Case.............................................................. 480 15.5 Active Nuclei of Galaxies (AGNs)..................................................... 481 Quasars.............................................................................................. 481 Unification ....................................................................................... 483 Massive Black Holes in the Center of Galaxies............................ 485 Disks around Massive Black Holes ............................................... 487 15.6 Clusters of Galaxies .............................................................................487 Gravitational Lenses......................................................................... 489 15.7 Large Scale and Even Larger: Cosmology........................................ 492 Voids and Walls................................................................................. 492 Contents xvii Intergalactic Matter, the Lyman Wood........................................... 493 How far can we look back into the Past? ...................................... 494 15.8 Background Radiation ....................................................................... 496 Cosmogony, or How did the Structure of the Universe come about? ..................................................................................... 499 References ........................................................................................................ 502 16 1995-2005: Galaxies and another Revolution...........................................505 16.1 The Concordance Model of the Universe...........................................506 The Expansion of the Universe is Accelerating ............................ 506 ‘Anisotropies’ and Fundamental Properties of the Universe .... 510 A ‘Concordant’ Model of the Universe ......................................... 513 16.2 ACDM: A Successful Theory for the Origin of the Cosmic Web and its Stars and Galaxies .............................................514 16.3 The Existence of Supermassive Black Holes and their Relation to the surrounding Galaxy ................................................... 519 ‘Supermassive Black Holes’ do exist............................................. 520 An unexpected Relationship between Galaxies and Massive Black Holes........................................................................ 522 16.4 Large Surveys....................................................................................... 524 The Sloan Digital Sky Survey......................................................... 524 2 dFRGS: The ‘Two-Dimensional Fiber Galaxy Redshift Survey’ ............................................................................... 530 Other Surveys................................................................................... 532 References ........................................................................................................ 533 17 2005-2015: Harvest Time ............................................................................ 535 17.1 Searching for High-z Galaxies ........................................................... 536 The CFHT Survey............................................................................. 538 Lyman-Break Galaxies: z = 2-3..................................................... 539 Further than z=3 ............................................................................. 540 17.2 Star Formation through the Ages ....................................................... 540 Gas Clouds at high z........................................................................ 540 Newly formed Stars ........................................................................ 541 17.3 Clusters Galore..................................................................................... 544 The Bullet Cluster: Unexpected Evidence of the Existence of Dark Matter ................................................................ 545 17.4 Early Times: Re-ionization..................................................................546 Quasars and Re- ionization .............................................................. 546 Re-ionization and the 21 cm Line................................................... 548 17.5 Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations........................................................... 550 References ........................................................................................................ 552 Epilogue................................................................................................................. 555 Index 557
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spellingShingle	Habing, Harm J. 1937- The birth of modern astronomy Astronomy History Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd
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title	The birth of modern astronomy
title_auth	The birth of modern astronomy
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title_full	The birth of modern astronomy by Harm J. Habing
title_fullStr	The birth of modern astronomy by Harm J. Habing
title_full_unstemmed	The birth of modern astronomy by Harm J. Habing
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topic	Astronomy History Astronomie (DE-588)4003311-9 gnd
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