Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem: o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám
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| Main Author: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Czech |
| Published: |
Praha
Národní Archiv v Praze [u.a.]
2012
|
| Edition: | Vyd. 1. |
| Subjects: | |
| Links: | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025872505&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025872505&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Between the furrow an the bank credit: agrarian and monetary history of the 19th and 20th century |
| Physical Description: | 641 S. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9788074690020 9788074150630 |
Staff View
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Record in the Search Index
| _version_ | 1819370444629737472 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Obsah
Úvodem (Eva Drašarova)
................................................... 7
Slovo editorů (Jan Kahuda, Eduard Kubu,
Jiñna
Juněcová, Jiň Novotný)
......... 9
Rozšafný a milý člověk, nesmlouvány odborník. Archivář, historik
a pedagog Jiří Šouša jubilující (Eduard Kubů)
.............................. 11
A charming and lovable man, an uncompromising
expert.
Archivist, historian
and pedagogue
Jiří Šouša
in his jubilee year
(Eduard Kubů)..................
14
I. POMOCNÉ VĚDY HISTORICKÉ, DĚJINY SPRÁVY A PRÁVA
Jak to bylo a být nemělo. Re studiu tzv. neformálních struktur
v dějinách správy českých zemí
19.
a
20.
století
............................. 19
R
působení neformálních českých struktur ve státních institucích Předlitavska
na počátku
20.
století
.................................................... 27
Česká zemědělská rada, její kancelář a proces vzniku jejích písemností
1873-1890.
Stať z moderní genetické diplomatiky
...................................... 35
Rašínova měnová reforma v roce
1919 (1920)................................. 49
R
typologii písemností českých obchodních bank meziválečného období. Agrární
banka československá a její písemnosti
1918-1938
(spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
... 59
Jednané a zapsané.
R
reflexi jednání statutárních orgánů českých bank
v jejich písemnostech (spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
............................. 69
Z podnikatele a manažera třídním nepřítelem: Jaromír Bečka a jeho rodina
-
objekt zájmu státní správy
(1945-1960)
(Case
study) (spoluautor Eduard Kubů)
.. 89
Česko-německá „záští před pražskými soudy v osmdesátých letech
19.
století
.... 101
JUDr. Jan Vašatý
-
český advokát, investor, a také kontroverzní politik
druhé poloviny
19.
století
................................................ 113
II.
DĚJINY ZEMĚDĚLSTVÍ
Re zpracování zemědělských dějin let
1848-1918.............................. 127
R
vývoji zemědělské správy v Čechách na počátku sedmdesátých let
19.
století
.... 141
Zemědělská správa a některá východiska vzestupu agrární strany v Čechách,
1914-1918.............................................................. 165
Vznik České zemědělské rady
............................................... 195
R
podílu regionálních zemědělských spolků na intenzifikaci českého zemědělství
v poslední třetině
19.
století
.............................................. 231
Snahy o povinné veřejnoprávní organizace zemědělců v Čechách
v letech
1848-1938...................................................... 237
Dvě generace představitelů agrárního hnutí
-
Jan Antonín a Adolf Prokůpkové
... 267
Selský archiv a Časopis pro dějiny venkova
-
publikační orgány
českého agrárního dějepisectví
........................................... 283
Ctí, ale nečtou?
R
reflexi děl ruralistů na české vesnici
......................... 299
Osobnost a obor. Vladislav Brdlík a zemědělská správověda
.................... 311
Podnikatelské a manažerské elity českého agrárního hnutí v období sklonku
Rakouska-Uherska a za Československé republiky (Úvahy o možnostech
prohloubení a inovace badatelských přístupů) (spoluautor Eduard Kubů)
...... 333
Vídeňská
Grüne
Internationale
-
transferový kanál agrarismu
ve střední Evropě? (spoluautor Eduard Kubů)
.............................. 347
III.
DĚJINY PENĚŽNICTVÍ
Rde jsou mé peníze? Skandální zpronevěry v českých záložnách
v závěru
19.
a na počátku
20.
století (spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
................ 379
Samospráva a české banky druhé poloviny
19.
a první poloviny
20.
století
(spoluautor Jiří Novotný)
................................................. 413
R
vývoji správních struktur soukromých societárních institucí ve druhém
a třetím decenniu
20.
století. Statutární i další orgány Agrární banky
1911-1929
(spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
....................................... 433
R
úsilí o finanční podporu české menšiny na severu naší země (Severočeská
banka v Litoměřicích
1920-1923)
(spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
.................. 465
Re vztahu podnikatelského subjektu a profesní organizace meziválečné doby.
Agrární banka a Svaz československých bank v letech
1917-1929
(spoluautor Jiří Novotný)
................................................. 503
Střípky z každodennosti českých bank ve druhé polovině
19.
a v prvních
decenniích
20.
století (spoluautor Jiří Novotný)
............................. 519
Úvěry centrální Národní banky Československé pro výrobní sféru
v letech
1926-1938
(spoluautor Jiň Novotný)
............................... 537
Československá půjčka v Londýně
1922.
Pole setkávání českých a britských
finančních elit (spoluautor Eduard Kubu)
.................................. 551
Bibliografie
doc.
PhDr. Jiřího Souši, CSc
...................................... 579
Přehled kvalifikačních prací vzniklých pod vedením
doc. PhDr.
Jiřího Souši, CSc,
na katedře pomocných věd historických a archivního studia
FF UR
........... 597
Summary
................................................................. 601
Jmenný rejstřík
........................................................... 627
Místní rejstřík
............................................................. 637
BETWEEN THE FURROW AND THE BANK CREDIT
Agrarian and monetary history of the 19th and 20th century
Abstract
A. AUXILIARY SCIENCES OF HISTORY,
HISTORY OF ADMINISTRATION AND LAW
How it was and should not have been
Studies into the informal structures in the history of administration
of the Bohemian Lands in the 19th and 20th century
To study the history of administration is to study the organisation of government
agencies, to seek answers to the question how certain institutions grew out of the
needs and life of society, and what the impact and real form of their activity was. The
subject of this study therefore covers the organs of a given power cum institutional
system in the widest sense of the word. Within its framework it is possible and also
important to unveil at least in part the decision-making mechanisms operating in
the administrative institutions and to find out what led their representatives to the
decisions they took. It is abundantly clear that it was not only the norms that they
conformed to
-
from top legislative acts and statutes and codes of conduct of a spe¬
cific institution. Backstage dealings and tractable officials have existed since time
out of mind. Group, family, and other interests always played an important part in
the past and if they diverged from the interests of the ruler, who was essentially the
state, so much the worse for the state, in many cases.
Several characteristic examples given in the paper from the modern history of
the Bohemian Lands bear out the importance of the study into such so-called infor¬
mal structures. It would be ideal if we could determine who did what, how much he
received in exchange, or what other benefit was granted to him, or what other rea¬
sons he had for doing so. It is only logical, though, that this can only be a laboriously
composed mosaic, for such information is not in the texts of the official documents
and we have to use as sources marginal notes, personal inheritances, memories of
contemporaries, decrypted books of account, and the like.
The informal structures are viewed in this paper as vital elements of sorts. The
author s point of departure is the conviction that society should successfully func¬
tion and if possible, also cater for the essential needs of its members. If the official,
formal administrative structures are enough to serve these functions, all is well; if
this is not the case, it gives grounds for the creation of other structures, which re¬
solve some conflicts of interest, take over mediating links, and sometimes the actual
decision-making. The fact that stronger entities have the upper hand, being more
predatory, more unscrupulous, more cunning, is only a logical consequence of the
relations in human society.
0
agrárních a peněžních dějinách
19.
a
20.
století
601
Typology of documents in Czech commercial banks in the inter-war period
Československá
agrární banka
(Czechoslovak Agrarian Bank)
and its documents
1918-1938
We can regard Agrarian Bank as a top financial institution of the Czech Agrarian
movement and of the majority of Czech farmers. From the viewpoint of the credit
system it was a challenge to the monopoly of the banks of the bourgeois business
circles. The decision-makers managed to constitute Agrarian Bank as a perspective
institution relatively fast.
Problems arose in its operations in the
1920s,
of the sort that also arose in most fi¬
nancial
institutions
in the Czechoslovak Republic. Just like those Agrarian Bank was
hit by the post-war deflation crisis and had to be bailed out from government coffers
in the high amount of
100
million crowns. Its growth resumed in the second half of
the
1920s
and in the
1930s,
where its successful development is associated with the
name of a leading Czech pragmatist and agrarian economist, Viktor
Stoupal.
The individual types of documents which were used in the internal operations
of commercial banks, including the Agrarian Bank, or were addressed to external
recipients, were in principle defined by law and subordinate legislation, and were
applicable to joint-stock companies, joint-stock banks, and individual financial in¬
stitutions. They were also based on requirements from banks business operations.
Internal operations of banking institutions were based on articles of association,
codes of conduct and organisational rules, minutes from meetings of statutory bod¬
ies, accounting documents, and circulars. The bank issued public calls (prospects),
shares, promissory notes, passbooks, bills of exchange, cheques, letters of credit,
annual reports, commercial contracts and business correspondence, which have
largely in terms of diplomatics the character of letters, reports and requests.
Logically, this outlined typology is only a skeleton. It concerns a time when docu¬
ments actively entered the life of society, were used as instruments in business op¬
erations, and were the foundation for internal operations of institutions. It is how¬
ever necessary to probe into their other plane: their informative value as a historical
source.
Of all the individual types of documents this essay has chosen as an example for
such source analysis minutes of meetings of the board of directors of Agrarian Bank.
In terms of content the minutes are in keeping with the competences of the board
as the bank s highest executive body. If the board of directors decided on a certain
matter, the decision was valid and was put into practice. Most of the minutes con¬
cern approvals of credit lines. If a credit line was approved, this did not always mean
the entire credit would be used and in many cases it was not used. Likewise, not all
founding operations (i.e. the bank s share in the establishment or investing capital in
a certain firm) were successfully completed, which is also the case of deposit deals.
The originals of the official minutes of the board of directors supply us with accurate,
information on the framework of basic banking operations. Their drafts, which have
been accidentally preserved, supplement our view with the period atmosphere and
some confidential insights with which the board of directors responded to the cur¬
rent social problems, such as the immediate threat to the Czechoslovak Republic by
Nazi Germany in
1938.
604
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
Discussed and taken down in writing
Reflections on operations of statutory bodies of Czech banks in their documents
To explore the chosen theme discussed and taken down in writing we can for
example compare drafts and original minutes of meetings of banking institutions
boards of directors and comment on how accurately they reflect the official records
of standpoints and the words said in those meetings. The key problem is the heuris¬
tic basis as the original minutes are standard parts of banks archives and very few
drafts have been preserved. There is an exception, the minutes of meetings of Agrar¬
ian Bank s board of directors. Classically they are records of talks, their results, and
the supporting materials. They specify the time, venue, agenda of the meeting, its
results, and the attendees, who also approved and signed the minutes. In terms of
content, minutes of meetings of the board of directors on which this essay focuses
are in line with the powers of the bank s top executive body. If the board of directors
decided something, the decision was valid and was put into practice.
Seeing the basic characteristics of the minutes, a question logically arises: How
exactly these records reflect the reality of the board meetings as they are not ver¬
batim stenographic records. The original minutes of meetings of Agrarian Bank s
board of directors are in the form of an official book and are archived in binders
containing one hundred each. The first page of the minutes is the official pagination
of the book and the date when the minutes began to be taken, signed by a govern¬
ment commissary as the state s control body. On page two began the records which
always related to a specific meeting. The minutes were headed by the boilerplate
formula Minutes of regular (or extraordinary) meeting of the board of directors of
...
Followed the opening of the meeting, names of the attendees, and information about
verification and approval of the minutes of the preceding meeting. This was fol¬
lowed by reading of the items on the agenda, i.e. authorised credits, a report on the
situation in the financial market, founding actions, new laws and measures adopted
by the government administration concerning the economy, annual or interim re¬
sults of the bank s operations etc.
Draft minutes of meetings of Agrarian Bank s board of directors have the distinc¬
tive character of an internal act. As the meetings were confidential, no minor offi¬
cials attended them. The drafts were written up by the bank s managing director,
Rarel
Svoboda,
who was privy to some secret financial operations of government
agencies and Agrarian Party, in pencil, on double sheets of paper of a poorer quality,
leaving the first sheet blank. On this sheet an authorised clerk from the secretariat of
Agrarian Bank, doubtless after consultation with Rarel
Svoboda,
or at his dictation,
wrote down the most important business decisions from the board meeting, which
were copied, with some necessary additions, to the book of originals. The drafts are
an extension of the classic adage: The way to the document is paved with official
acts is thus changed to the way to the official book of minutes of the banking institu¬
tion is paved with acts. The acts allow us to broaden the scholarly perspective with
confidential information and insights showing how the board of directors strove to
resolve the bank s problems and how it reacted to the economic, political and social
issues of the time.
0
agrárních a peněžních dějinách
19.
a
20.
století
605
From entrepreneur and manager to class enemy
Jaromír Bečka
and his family subject of the attention of the government administration
(1945-1960)
Case Study
This study focuses on a distinguished representative of Czech enterprise,
Ja¬
romír Bečka
and his family, over a period of some twenty-five years. It starts from
his activities towards the end of the first Czechoslovak Republic, and follows them
in the changed conditions of the Second World War and the limited democracy
in
1945-1948.
Then it concentrates on the fate of the
Bečka
family during the re¬
pressions of the
1950s
and early
1960s.
Those were doubtless extraordinary times,
times of dramatic political, economic and social changes. After the liberation the
pendulum of social, economic and political development swung radically to the
left. The manifestation of this in the majority part of the Czech nation, with the
strengthening Communist Party, the left-wing Social Democrats and their allies
was, in the area of property rights, the large-scale nationalisation on one hand,
and access to restituted property of people persecuted under the Nazi regime on
the other hand.
The fate of the
Bečka
family is a characteristic example of how the Communist
Party regime settled with the affluent business elites from the first Czechoslovak Re¬
public after dispossessing them of their firms and a greater part of their property by
nationalisation and other legislative means. It documents systematic persecution,
which has a political dimension (they were deprived of the possibility of political or¬
ganisation to further their specific interests), a social one (the former elites could not
work in managerial professions, their children could not study and were subjected
to re-education, like the so-called Black Barons ) and finally, a property-related di¬
mension, which completed the expropriation process started by nationalisation. In
the fifties and early sixties this involved expropriation of small and medium-sized
properties and valuable chattels, jewellery, paintings, and the like.
Economic persecution continued while social and political persecution was
somewhat eased. What is more, it was actually perfected. Under new secondary leg¬
islation the former elites could be hit by seizure of smaller and medium-sized prop¬
erties (villas, lands etc.). In every case, we witness its fading away as late as the first
half of the
1960s.
It was a legacy of a radical wilful Stalinism with all its characteris¬
tic attributes.
Czech-German resentments before Prague courts in the 1890s
The Czech-German society in Bohemia, including Prague, was an area of con¬
flict with a number of major and minor clashes. In the second half of the 19lh cen¬
tury the strength and weight of the two ethnic groups changed in the Prague Field .
The ruling Germans who considered the capital city to be their economic, political
and cultural possession, could not come to terms with the dynamic development of
the Czech economic and demographic potential, which was accompanied by quite
logical demands in the area of politics, education, and culture as part of the devel¬
opment of a civic society and its modernisation. The transformation of the hitherto
dominant German population into a minority, which was losing its importance and
scope for actions, was very difficult to bear, particularly for the elites, as the Prague-
606
MEZI
BRÄZDOU
A BANKOVNIM
ÚVĚREM
based Germans then had (as a rule) a higher social standing than the Czech popu¬
lation. Most combative was the reserve of the German elites
-
German students
and Jewish students who spoke German and felt they were Germans.
It was precisely these university students that most often clashed with the Czech
population of Prague, who regarded, with justification, their challenging behaviour
as provocation. The tensions and animosities sometimes culminated in open fights
which were resolved by the Austrian justice. The judges attitude to the conflicts is
undoubtedly worthy of note, being typical of the 1890s. At the outset, the provincial
criminal court in Prague ruled in the so-called
Chuchle
Case , which is mentioned
in every major work about the Czech period history. In essence, it was hardly more
than a bar-room brawl . The problem was its publicity in the media and the fact that
it was preceded by a number of minor conflicts of varying intensity. The authori¬
ties of the monarchy, including courts of law, evidently wanted to show that they
had things under control and could assure law and order , which could be objec¬
tively disturbed by Czech demonstrations with the risk of escalation to riotous con¬
duct and attacks on Prague institutions. Public prosecutor
Johann
Rapp
also tried to
draw attention to himself and prove himself useful . The provincial criminal court
in Prague carried out the task, sentenced the defendants, but left the sentences at an
endurable level, which was upheld by the highest judiciary instance of Cisleithania
in Vienna. We find a somewhat different judicial practice in the area of infractions,
which included most of the Czech-German collisions in Prague. The lowest courts
-
at the district level
-
largely ruled in favour of the Czechs or dismissed their cases
for lack of evidence.
Jan Vašatý
-
Czech lawyer, investor and controversial politician
of the second half of the 19th century
A typical feature of Czech society in the second half of the 19th century is the
great importance of lawyers who became a rapidly growing and prestigious part of
the national elite. They occupied this position not only in their own sphere of law,
but also in politics, business, and culture, etc. At first sight it is obvious that it was a
number of these personalities that were respected and worthy of admiration, even
nowadays. But, as in every professional group, there were also controversial indi¬
viduals that are beyond the pale. This may be the reason why they are remarkable
and appealing to us.
The official evaluation of
Jan Vašatý
within the framework of the development of
Czech politics of the second half of the 19th century is largely negative. At the begin¬
ning there was a Young Czech party journalist of Jewish origin, Josef
Penízek,
who
presented the anti-Semite
Vašatý
in the most negative way. He was seconded by the
historiographer of the Young Czech party,
Zdeněk Václav Tobolka.
In both cases Jan
Vašatý
was presented as being highly unpopular with his colleagues
-
the MPs for
the Young Czech party
-
who considered him an immoral creature.
Vašatý s
unpop¬
ularity in the Old Czech and later in the Young Czech party is in sharp contrast with
his popularity with his voters. He was elected almost unanimously and repeatedly
even after
1896
when he was expelled from the Young Czech party.
Vašatý
clearly represented the traditional political view of the role of a member
of parliament in the 19th century: a totally independent representative of his vot¬
ers who listens only to his own conscience and does not toe the party line. Another
0
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a
20.
století
607
character trait feature was his ambitiousness, vanity and extravagance in his views
and activities. He was also classed as a radical, but in his views on social and other
issues, for instance, he was a staunch conservative. He devoted himself to the ques¬
tion of linguistics
-
emancipation and equalisation of the Czech language. He wrote
for the journal
Právník
(Lawyer). As a lawyer and investor, he was undoubtedly, in
view of his income, very capable, although instead of being a devotee of St
Ivo,
the
patron saint of lawyers, and according to the legend the only advocate who went to
heaven thanks to his personal qualities, he was tempted by Herkomannus, the sup¬
posed patron saint of fraudulent, niggardly and morally doubtful lawyers.
II. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
Tracing a history of agriculture,
1848-1918
If we are to trace the literature on the history of agriculture in the second half of
the 19th and early 20th century, we cannot ignore in the introduction a manuscript
by a distinguished agricultural historian and author of the Czech historiography,
František
Rutnar, which expounds widely on the peripetia of studies of agriculture,
forestry and the food industry in the past, spanning the enlightenment beginnings
until the threshold of the
1950s.
Apart from its factuality delivered with an uncom¬
mon knowledge of the subject and real enthusiasm, the work offers a number of
theoretical insights.
It is evident from his work that the beginnings of the interest in the agrarian his¬
tory of the nineteenth and the first two decades of the twentieth century were rather
modest. Besides, the literature did not very much follow up on the works about more
remote periods. Attention was mainly paid to the political developments and ideas
around the abolition of serfdom and compulsory labour, the emerging agrarian
movement, and farmers organisations. Yet in recounting the events betweenl848
and
1849
there is predominant interest in the government policy in respect of the
country folk, whereas the conduct and thinking of the Czech farmers are only men¬
tioned in several little contributions. Valuable information about the agricultural
problems is found in older retrospective studies published on the occasion of jubi¬
lees, such as the Jubilee Exhibition in
1891
or the
50
anniversary of the coronation
of Franz Josef
Í.
Historical research into the period
1848-1918
in the agrarian area, especially in
the post-war period, shows the importance of the Museum of Agriculture and a cir¬
cle of scholars around it as a research coordination centre and focal point, whose
publication section played an irreplaceable role in the publishing of the valuable
results. After all, in this period, approximately
50%
of all the works about agricul¬
tural history were published in the museum s periodicals and studies. Without such
a possibility today s state of knowledge would not attain the requisite qualities in
comparison with the state of the art abroad. Scientific works and sources and stud¬
ies found their readers and brought a number of material works which can well be
used for decades. As we know, only works that rest on painstaking in-depth research
into the extant sources, in the first place archival sources.
608
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
Development
of agricultural administration
in Bohemia in the early 1870s
Study of administrative development of agriculture in Bohemia is an important
part of the study of the history of agriculture in our country. Its knowledge can be
helpful in the analysis of the constitutional components that influenced the devel¬
opment of the agricultural areas in Bohemia. At the same time, it allows us to bet¬
ter understand this important sphere of administration. It involves research into the
internal structures of a given society and the individual elements of the structures,
their interconnections and relations.
Analysis of the organisation of agricultural administration in Bohemia at the be¬
ginning of the 1870s and reflection on the configuration of the real power politic sit¬
uation of the period affords us an opportunity for consideration of some problems in
the administrative expression of the economic relations in Bohemia in that period,
and its specifics in the development of Czech agriculture. Though there were fixed
legal norms, but what mattered was Iheir interpretation in relation to the economic
and political interests of the groupings and groups of the ruling elites, and realisa¬
tion of the interpretation according to the circumstances.
In those days the centralists (German liberals and big constitutionalist landown¬
ers) and autonomists (Czech liberals and big conservative landowners) were faeing
each other in Bohemia. The components of the power institutional system under
their control (i.e. the government and the government agencies on one side, and the
agricultural institutions
-
local authorities, associations and so forth, on the other
side) exerted pressure from their positions on the common ground in the middle.
The common ground was mobile and shifted according to the particular conditions,
and had a certain variable power. (Under the government of Adolf Auersperg
-
in
the early 1870s
-
it is evident that it was very much compressed by Vienna and the
autonomists room for manoeuvre was reduced to a minimum.)
Likewise, the order of the institutions stipulated by law according to their im¬
portance need not quite bear resemblance to reality. Formal and factual hierar¬
chy of the administrative institutions could differ. It depended on objective fac¬
tors (such as their power position, if we look at them from economic or political
vantage points, and subjective (the persons who headed them) character. It could
well happen that institutions which did not have a commanding power and were
outside the structure of state and self-government authorities actually played an
important role. Due to the relatively small scope of the government authorities and
self-government institutions they were, for example, in agriculture such organi¬
sations as
Vlastenecko-hospodářská společnost
(Patriotic Economic Society) and
later
Zemědělská rada království českého
(Agricultural Council of the Kingdom
of Bohemia) which dealt with specialised matters and provided expert opinions to
bodies with decision-making and commanding powers. This set-up was relatively
cheap and in essence quite efficient. Most of the personnel were persons who had
material interest in further development of market agriculture and therefore had
eminent interest in it, unlike civil servants and self-government officials. (Those
were secure, had a regular income and the interest of ex offo could not and can¬
not be overestimated.)
O agrárních a peněžních dějinách
19.
а
20.
století
609
Agricultural administration and points of departure for the rise of Agrarian Party
in Bohemia
1914-1918
This study does not consider agricultural production and does not aim to deliver
a full elucidation of the administrative organisation of agriculture in Bohemia in
1914-1918.
(Due to the prevailing conditions the administration was complicated,
and so many changes were taking place that it is very difficult to summarise them
in detail.) Therefore, it will only outline some moments in the development, interac¬
tion with, and in places influencing
-
to personnel exchanges
-
the elements of the
power cum institutional system and the rising economic importance of the Czech
countryside, whose consequences are important if we are to understand the place
and role of Agrarian Party, in particular at the establishment of the Czechoslovak
Republic. Exposition of the administration is not the goal but a means for clarifica¬
tion of the pressing power policy questions of the time.
The war conditions were fully reflected in the agricultural administration of Bo¬
hemia in
1914-1918.
The government was then striving to regulate purchase, sale
and production of crop plants and breeding of farm animals. The bodies that the
government intended to play an important part in the state production, collection
and distribution of farm produce were government administration institutions (of
self-government mainly the municipalities) and emerging war organisations. For
the most part government administration (or self-government) did not succeed in
solving the problems brought about by war. The shortcomings were not remedied
by the war organisations, which were a new (and substantial) form of intervention
in the existing power cum institutional structure of agriculture.
The world war brought to Czech agriculture a slow-down in animal and plant
production and considerable deterioration of the production conditions. Czech
farmers were however able to exploit the worsening supply situation and demand
for farming produce and to make huge gains. Deposits with organisation to which
the cash surpluses of this class (Central Association of Economic Cooperatives and
above all, Agrarian Bank) rose in
1914-1918
by arithmetical (and in some places
almost geometrical) progression. Yet only a portion of the funds was deposited and
besides, consumers exchanged food for jewels and other chattels.
This amount is however relativised by the impossibility of investing the gains
and the fact that Czech farmers wives (the men were at the front) economised and
saved money. Most farmers and millers also helped and conducted themselves
honourably even though there were quite a few avaricious and asocial individuals
among them.
Czech farmers showed themselves as an ambitious constituent of society able to
bring their share in the war gains to fruition. Their political representative, Czech
Agrarian Party (which we can characterise as a conglomerate of organised econom¬
ic interests)
-
then assumed, quite logically, in the emerging power political system
of the Czechoslovak Republic, one of the key positions.
A system of rationed economy and government control was created during the
war, in which Agrarian Party managed to attain certain positions and prepare the
ground for taking control of the central offices which managed most of the agricul¬
tural produce after the regime change.
In the first two years of the republic the rationing system helped rural commu¬
nities to strengthen and develop their positions within the emerging Czechoslovak
economy.
610
MEZI
BRÁZDOU
A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
Creation of
Česká zemědělská
rada
-
Zemědělská
rada
Království českého
(Agricultural Council of the Kingdom of Bohemia)
Study into the development of agriculture in Bohemia is an integral part of stud¬
ies into Czech history. It helps us to get to know the general context of the historical
development of Bohemia and creates the preconditions for a much more differenti¬
ated and better understanding of a historical period.
This study aims to analyse the creation of the
Česká zemědělská
rada
(Czech Agri¬
cultural Council) as an instrument serving to develop market relations in agriculture,
with whose assistance agricultural production was intensified, division of labour be¬
came more generalised, qualitative transformations of agriculture were effected, and
it was modernised. The milestones marking the work are the first not quite elucidated
proposals from the early 1860s for the creation of a body to operate in the agricultural
parts of Bohemia, and to create the Czech Agricultural Council in
1873.
Full atten¬
tion is devoted to analysis of the individual proposals and real actions closely related
to manufacturing, the economic and social conditions and circumstances, following
the current political implications. Objectively they led to the creation of a body which
would be helpful in the creation of the preconditions for further and faster develop¬
ment of the market relations in agriculture in the Bohemian Lands.
The Czech Agricultural Council
(ZR/Č)
was created by the ruler s supreme deci¬
sion in
1873
as an instrument for the development of capitalism in agriculture and
as a body to serve in support of the ruling big constitutionalist landowners and Ger¬
man liberals, it was however created not as an executive body, but as an advisory
agricultural body of quasi-public nature within the ministry of tillage, and with the
character of a public corporation. Although the establishment of the
ZR/Č
in
1873
was not a dynamic culmination of prior efforts and was subjected to a specific politi¬
cal impulse, the
ZR/Č
was established for deeper reasons. In principle, two groups of
factors operated here: objective factors with dominant influence and subjective fac¬
tors (not as important but not negligible). Of the objective factors the greatest weight
had economic factors perceived in the wider sense of the historical context of the
development of the market relations in Czech agriculture. The preceding develop¬
ments also led to the establishment of such a central agricultural authority because
the
Vlastenecko-hospodářská společnost
(Patriotic Economic Society) that had been
created under different social and economic conditions could no longer serve the
purpose of the advancement of capitalism. Likewise, its organisational structure
was not equal to serving the government machinery.
In qualitative terms the creation of a higher body represents a process influenced
by divergent political standpoints. Political factors are then part of the objective fac¬
tors in the creation of the ZR/C. Representatives of the main political currents in the
country endeavoured to acquire dominant influence in the new institution and to
this end they did not hesitate to exploit their rivals failures.
ОГ
course, the influence of the subjective factors should not be underestimated
as questions of power and prestige and attempts at settling personal accounts could
have played a significant part in certain matters.
The tasks for which the
ZR/Č
was created were progressive for the time. Its efforts
to promote economic progress and public education and meet the economic and so¬
cial needs of the time in keeping with the social developments. In its consequences
it helped to develop forces of production and production relations and helped to ac¬
celerate the process of intensification and modernisation of Czech agriculture.
0
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a
20.
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611
Contribution of regional agricultural societies
to the intensification of Czech agriculture in the last third of the 19th century
The phase of development of agricultural societies in the last quarter of the
IC 1
century was related to the beginnings of the intensification of agricultural economy.
Some of the aims of the societies changed and new operational forms were intro¬
duced. Own activities expanded and new types of schools, cooperatives and other
institutions emerged.
Farmers were compelled to intensify production by the market relations of the
period economy and the protracted agrarian crisis which did not have merely dev¬
astation effects. The extraordinary conditions taught capable and assiduous farmers
to budget carefully. Farmers holdings became in the conditions of the Bohemian
Lands the protagonists of modern market agriculture. Farmers holdings were fol¬
lowed by smallholdings.
The need for the development of commercial agriculture and its intensification
aroused increased interest in the economic policy and was actively reflected in the
establishment and operations of the agricultural societies. The advancement of the
societies is characteristic for the close of the 19 1 century. Their membership ex¬
panded to further rural strata. In spite of this most farmers remained unorganised
and outside their sphere of influence.
The efforts of the agricultural societies to advance economic progress and public
education in the countryside objectively helped, in the last decades of the 19 1 centu¬
ry, to intensify our agriculture. Their activities accelerated the creation of a modern
market economy in the sphere of primary production. The close of the
19
century
is characterised by the activities of regional agricultural societies, culminating as the
older organisational model. In the upcoming twentieth century other organisations
come to the fore, in particular dynamically developing cooperatives.
Attempts at compulsory public organisations of farmers
in Bohemia,
1848-1938
The principal task of the history of agricultural administration is to examine
the existing and operating power institutional system in this important economic
sphere. In this context, however, it is also important to study suggestions, reform
proposals and projects (and changes in general) of administrative organisations in
agriculture, which were not put into practice but in their time the interests and ef¬
forts of various classes, groupings and groups in the period society resonated in
them. Thus we can trace in them reflections of some aspects of economic and politi¬
cal development in a given period.
An interesting topic which one can encounter in Bohemia over almost ninety years
were compulsory public organisations of farmers (so-called chambers of agriculture).
The following essay is devoted to attempts to set up such bodies, taking into considera¬
tion the more significant suggestions and actions to this end, and endeavours to follow
them in the context of the development of our country, taking into account the resolu¬
tion of this issue in Austria (Cisleithania), and in the Czechoslovak Republic.
The first intimations of the development of the issue of the new farmers organi¬
sations appeared in
1849-1850.
The rising neo-absolutism of the 1850s logically re¬
jected such initiatives. New proposals appeared in the changed political situation in
612
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
the 1860s, although the economic liberalism, as the mainstream economic policy of
the state in the second half of the 1860s and in the 1870s, was not in favour of the
establishment of bodies which would compulsorily associate farmers. It was no ac¬
cident, therefore, that the ministry of tillage of Julius Falkenhayn under the new
government of
Eduard Taaffe -
put forward the idea for the creation of compulsory
organisations (chambers of agriculture) as a draft law to the Imperial Council. It was
a skeleton law whose adoption in the individual Lands required the passing of an
implementing Reich law, which did not happen in Bohemia.
The rejection of the proposal for obligatory agricultural organisations did not
mean the creation of an independent republic although the different period condi¬
tions logically modified it. Both main actions (period
1918-1938) -
in
1919-1921
and
1954-1936
were without question related to the seeking of ways for further develop¬
ment of agriculture in the Czechoslovak Republic. The first wave of interest (chrono¬
logically in
1919-1921)
can be seen in the context of the system of rationed economy
which was in place for the first two years of the existence of the republic. In this situa¬
tion the Agrarian Party had a certain interest in the establishment of obligatory organi¬
sations of farmers, through which it could wield its influence in the countryside.
We can put the second action (in
1934-1936)
into the context of propagation of
government interventions in agriculture and in controlled economy, which were
espoused (as points of departure for overcoming stagnation) by Milan
Hodža
and
a group of agrarian theoreticians associated in the
Československá akademie
zemědělská
(Czechoslovak Agricultural Academy). The negotiations were not suc¬
cessful, however, not even at the time of the Second Republic.
It is significant that the compulsory agricultural organisations were not a special
characteristic of Bohemia but a production and organisational symptom: moderni¬
sation at the end of the 19th and early 20th century almost on the European scale.
Similar bodies were set up and operated in Germany, the Republic of Austria, but
also in France, Poland, Hungary, and Latvia.
Two generations of representatives of the Czech agrarian movement
Jan Antonín
and Adolf
Prokůpek
Biographical research focusing on prominent or at least remarkable personali¬
ties is a classic example of micro-analysis. Collecting data on human fates and the
situations that the personalities got into allows us to review their lives and works
and shed light on the social milieu to which they belonged and in which they lived.
Lives of individuals, as a complicated and often contradictory texture of relations
with the outside world, can also be used as a probe with which one can gain deeper
insights into some prominent features, but also some mundane aspects in the con¬
text of the evolution of a given society.
Biographically we can follow several generations within one family, in this case
that of
Prokůpek
of
Kutlíře,
whose two members became representatives of the
agrarian movement in Bohemia. Chronologically, the lives of
Jan Antonín
and Adolf
Prokůpek
span more than one hundred years in the lives of Czech farmers accord¬
ing to the dates of birth and death of the father and the son.
With his spirit of enterprise and a sense for new technologies
Antonín Prokůpek
broke with the conservative agrarian tradition according to which old time-tested
production methods should be employed. He made substantial investments in the
0
agrárních a peněžních dějinách
19.
a
20.
století
613
use of artificial fertilisers and in purchases of machinery and turned a run-of-the-
mill farmstead into an efficient agricultural enterprise. He was also a capable organ¬
iser operating in the region and later nationwide.
The seeds planted by
Jan Antonín
Prokůpek
and his contemporaries were
brought to fruition by the following generation to which his son Adolf belonged. The
interest of Adolf
Prokůpek
only concentrated on the family estate at
Rutlíře
in the
first decade, after he took it over in
1900
(definitively in
1902).
After he was elected
as the head of the
Zemědělská rada Království českého
(Agricultural Council of the
Kingdom of Bohemia
-
then the Agricultural Council for Bohemia) he moved to
Prague and managed his estate externally, following an established routine, in an
effort to maintain its optimum operation.
Adolf
Prokůpek
held posts in the economic area with responsibility and practical
know-how. It is precisely in the economic sphere that we can see the positive role of
the agrarian movement. This sphere was placed by the Agrarian Party, after a name
change the Republican Party of the Agrarian and Peasant People, on a solid organi¬
sational base which functioned dependably and with whose assistance the party
operated in the rural areas. However, Adolf
Prokůpek
s
activities in the economic
area were wider and extended to the important area of economic nationalism. The
representatives of the period clearly realised how important it was for the maximum
of the properties in the historical Lands to be held in Czech hands and their prof¬
its used for further investments and in support of the values on which independent
Czechoslovakia was built.
Selský archiv
(Country Archive) and
Časopis
pro
dějiny venkova
(Magazine for
Country History) as publication organs of the Czech agrarian historiography
For profiling of any scientific discipline and its further development it is neces¬
sary to assure the widest possible expert communication between interested schol¬
ars. A suitable means of such communication is a scholarly journal. In comparison
with a monographic publication which provides an immediate but to a considerable
degree static view of a problem, a journal enables us to address professional issues
continuously. Its periodicity allows us to comment readily on more or less topical
problems and the journal serves as a forum for discussion. The central journal of
the discipline reflects the main directions of research and the methods in use. This
naturally applies to Czech agrarian historiography.
Chronologically older
Selský archiv
was a pioneering act. Its content related
to the national history and geography, growing from the roots of the 19th century.
Strictly scholarly articles were not the editors aim, as it was intended as part of re¬
gional public education to arouse interest in life in the past, keep alive our forebears
traditions, and collect documents and memoirs.
A really scholarly periodical of agrarian historiography in the Bohemian Lands
was
Časopis
pro
dějiny venkova.
After modest beginnings it became in the
1920s
and
1930s
the bestselling historical periodical in Czechoslovakia.
In the assessment of the importance of
Selský archiv
and
Časopis
pro
dějiny
venkova
it should be recalled that when they were established as manifestations
of self-realisation of the rural strata in the Bohemian Lands. Although
Selský ar¬
chiv
played a pioneering role,
Časopis
pro
dějiny venkova
was of real importance
for profiling of the Czech agrarian historiography as a new discipline. It carried a
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
number of major studies from the discipline, making clear the methodical baggage
and scholarly focus. Material and moral support from the influential governmental
Republican Party of the Agrarian and Peasant People, the government institutions
influenced by it, and its linkage to the structure of agricultural museology and ar¬
chiving in Czechoslovakia also played an important part in this process. It should be
borne in mind that in the advanced western countries the first specialized magazine
for agrarian history
-
American Agricultural History
-
saw the light of day as late as
1927,
a time when
Časopis
pro
dejiny
venkova
was in its fourteenth year.
They respect it but don t read it?
Reflections on works by ruralists ¡n the Czech village
(Ruralist poetry and prose in libraries of readers circles and public libraries in Bohemia)
In the assessment of works of literature valuable information can be an indication
whether the works were actually read or were addressed, more or less, to a narrow
circle of intellectuals, literary scientists, and the author s family and friends. Greater
interest in literature was logically in towns where the educated classes concentrated
and the possession of a library enhanced, in modern times, the image of a cultured
person. In Czech villages libraries could be found rather exceptionally with land¬
owners or in families with a Bible reading tradition. A way was found for getting
books and works of the ruralists predecessors to the country through readers circles
and their libraries, in which the number of books was initially in the order of hun¬
dreds, but books by writers who explored rural themes, such as
Jindřich Šimon
Baar,
Rarei
Václav Rais, Karolina Světlá and Josef Holeček,
were not absent from them.
During the first Czechoslovak Republic these circles were superseded by public li¬
braries, built and stocked from the financial resources of the local authorities, in which
we can find works by the ruralists, in particular the most popular one,
Jan Vrba,
who
was widely read, with enduring interest in the proto-ruralists , above all
J.
Š.
Baar,
R.
V. Rais and
R. Rlostermann. Works
by the other authors in this literary movement
did not achieve such popularity. With reference to the obituary of the classic Czech
ruralist Josef
Holeček,
that these writers were respected especially at the close of the
1950s
but
-
perhaps with the exception of
Jan Vrba
-
not often read by Czech farmers,
and in the agricultural milieu of the Czech countryside. Of course, everything is rela¬
tive and the
35,000
readers who borrowed books by
Vojtěch Martínek,
Josef
Knap, Jan
Čep, František Rřelina
or
Jan Čárek
in
1937,
does not seem to be a negligible number
in view of the new literary movement that was fighting for its place on the Parnas¬
sus of Czech culture, especially if we consider that this was the lower threshold of
interest because we do not have any figures from private and other collections.
Personality and discipline
Vladislav Brdlik and the science of agricultural administration
In the past education in agriculture can be viewed from different vantage points.
The most frequent approach is institutional cum analytical and often institutional
cum descriptive, where the scholar examines a certain type of schools or a specific
institution, and describes its development in the period context. In doing so he nec¬
essarily faces the problem of source materials. There is a particular risk of being
0
agrárních a peněžních dějinách
19.
a
20.
století
615
misled
by statistical and reference materials which were published to celebrate the
successes of the discipline and no less, the activities of individuals who had the giv¬
en discipline within their competence.
In Vladislav Brdlik combined the personality of a pedagogue, scientist, and prag¬
matic politician. In the Bohemian Lands he became the founder of the modern sci¬
ence of agricultural administration
-
otherwise private agricultural economy. His
research was multifaceted and the benefits from the inductive direction of science
of agricultural administration that he advocated, based on analyses of accounts and
questionnaire surveys, are not lessened by the fact that the theoretical postulates
which were the axis of his theory of intensive farming, the law of diminishing land
yields and the law of the economic minimum
-
proved to be blind alleys. He was
indisputably a capable manager of science who built, with resourcefulness, and ad¬
ministered the
Zemědělský ústav účetnicko-správovědný
(Institute for Agricultural
Accounting and Administrative Science). As a superior he had a dominant person¬
ality and was quite authoritative, but this does not seem to have been so uncom¬
mon then. With regard to teaching, his lectures were terse and difficult to digest and
the teachings that the students received and for which they sat exams did not have
much application in actual agricultural practice. Nonetheless, what no student ever
forgot and often recalled were Brdlik s pedagogic exhortations
-
Go and do busi¬
ness, a nation of clerks will perish! or Nothing is better for us than the dreamless
nights of a private entrepreneur! , appeals that are no less topical today after almost
one hundred years. Vladislav Brdlik lived to a ripe old age and at the age of sixty-
nine was compelled to leave his homeland. This decision was doubtless hard to
make but in the overall circumstances it was right. He symbolised the end of private
agricultural economy in Czechoslovakia. Its miserable existence and brief survival
was no more than an embarrassing postscript.
Business and managerial elites of the Czech agrarian movement
towards the close of Austria-Hungary and the Czechoslovak Republic
Consideration of possibilities for development and innovation of scholarly approaches
Membership of the business and managerial elites of the Czech agrarian move¬
ment is expressed in the following characteristics which are perceived as a whole,
and each single case need not necessarily have all the characteristics variable in
time, but only their predominant part:
1.
Possession of a farmstead. For the Czech milieu is symptomatic small or me¬
dium size of a farmstead (up to about
20
hectares). The top businesses were large
farmsteads, mainly in areas with high-quality land (about
20-50
hectares). Their
owners represented the most dynamic segment of Czech agrarian enterprise and
gradually built on its basis the agrarian business elites.
2.
Institutional support. The economic power of the agrarian elites in the Czech
milieu was expressed through their engagement in local, district and provincial
government. It afforded them possibilities for expansion of the influence and action
radius, resulted in a federal or cooperative movement, and at length in nationally
profiled political movements, which enabled them to influence the economic milieu
on a new, higher level.
3.
Positions in the agrarian influential and enterprise network. Institutional
and organisational concentrations of the agrarian elites resulted in the formation
616
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
of influential and enterprise networks, both formal and informal (memberships of
boards of directors, supervisory boards). Purely agrarian business expanded to re¬
lated industrial sectors and banking. The modern agrarian bloc was constituted.
4.
Involvement with the professional and political movement. At the close of the
19th century the profiling of agrarian elites and organisational concentration of the
agrarian movement went so far that it was possible to form a unified professionally
profiled Czech agrarian party, which built its machinery, after
Švehla
took over its
leadership, on economic organisations. This party relied unambiguously on eco¬
nomic power and became the representative of the farming class.
5.
Linkage with the Czechoslovak State. After the establishment of the Czechoslo¬
vak Republic the political influence of the agrarian elites was much increased. The
Agrarian Party become a key link in the political system. Its leading personalities
represented the new republic, worked in state administration, and created exclusive
links to the state and major economic institutions and organisations.
6.
Professional farming mentality. The agrarian elites voiced their respect for
the traditions of the rural agrarian society and the farming class as the foundation
of the modern Czech nation. They formulated a programme for its elevation, in the
first place economic and political elevation, with a programme of the urban society
lagging behind the cultural and educational development. They symbolised their
original ideals of the rural dweller, emphasising the bond with nature and operat¬
ing with common sense. Rural conservatism and lifestyle determined by the agri¬
cultural year did not prevent the expansion of capitalism to agrarian enterprises, but
they were in a certain counter-position with the banking, industrial and commercial
elites, which were the main bearers of ideas of economic liberalism and subsequent
concentration of capital.
Vienna
Grüne
Internationale
-
transfer channel of agrarism in Central Europe?
Many ideals of agrarism, their originators and carriers entered the broad social
consciousness as they became part of the political movement and significantly influ¬
enced the development of the regions and entire states. By contrast, many ideas and
ideologists who could not rely on a wider social support practically fell into oblivion.
A remarkable phenomenon in Central Europe after the First World War was a group
of agrarian theoreticians who began to publish, in Vienna, in
1921,
a magazine called
Grüne
Internationale ( Green Internationale ). It was to become an integrating cen¬
tre for a broader international movement. Its original ambitions in this sense, as we
will see later, were excessive. The intention of creating on the basis of this maga¬
zine an international organisation of farmers analogous to international associations
- internationales
(Socialist, Communist or Catholic) failed. There is no doubt, how¬
ever, that an important idea platform of rural agrarism was constituted around the
magazine
Grüne
Internationale . This study endeavours to characterise it and pon¬
ders on its sources. It asks the question in what way the content of the Vienna plat¬
form overlapped with the ideals of the agrarian movement in the Bohemian Lands,
which became the foundation of a project of International Agrarian Bureau ( Bureau
International
Agraire )
headquartered in Prague, which competed with Vienna and
was more successful, a supranational organisation, which finally, in
1929,
took on
the role of organisational centre of the international agrarian movement, and was
also called informally Agrarian Internationale . In other words, we consider wheth-
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/
er
the Viennese
Grüne
Internationale could become or did become a medium for
the transfer of agraristic ideas between different and often competitive movements.
Analysis of the documents and the historical framework of the Viennese Green
Internationale leads us to the conclusion that this platform was not the programme
channel for the transfer of ideas in the way the Prague Green Internationale was to
be, wanting to reproduce and export political agrarism of the Czech (Czechoslo¬
vak) type , being conceived as a pressure group which endeavoured, on the basis
of analogies of country life in the Danube basin on the Hungaro-Bavarian axis, to
constitute a new original agrarian ideology, drawing on the legacy of the agrarian
movements and the authorities of agrarian thinking in this space. Therefore, the
Vienna idea platform of agrarism is not so much a transfer medium but rather a re¬
markable project of a small group of intellectuals who could not rely on a more sub¬
stantial social base. Against its background are outlined political interests stemming
from efforts for international emancipation of conservative circles of the defeated
countries striving for a silent revision of the Versailles system via facti. It is indis¬
putable here that the representatives of this platform found themselves outside the
centre of gravity in their countries political systems.
(The appendix to this study contains the paradigm of the composition of the Cen¬
tral European agrarism.)
III. HISTORY OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM
Where is my money?
Scandalous misappropriations in Czech savings societies
at the close of the 19th and the early 20th century
In the Czech milieu of the second half of the 19th century an important position
was attained by the so-called popular banking institutions. They were savings soci¬
eties of the Schultze-Delitsch type in towns, and district economic savings societies
and credit cooperatives following the principles of F.W. Raiffeisen in the country. The
development of the savings societies brought about not only economic positives but
also some hitherto unknown problems. From the last quarter of the 19th century there
was a significant increase in the number and magnitude of financial malpractices
-
a phenomenon which had not occurred much within the Czech monetary system.
Scandalous embezzlements of money that ended in the pockets and on accounts
of functionaries and managers instead of accounts of financial institutions took
place in the Bohemian Lands after the second half of the 19th century. At the time of
the prevailing economic liberalism of the 1860s and 1870s there were no objective
external checks that would have prevented misappropriations. If internal audits of
institutions failed and almost unlimited power in them was assumed by mutually
solidary managers, it was only logical that the numbers and amounts of embezzle¬
ments increased. External checks by accounting experts were becoming indispen¬
sable.
To demonstrate the phenomenon of embezzlements there are two typical cases
that captured public attention and their written documentation is extant.
Okresní hospodárska
záložna v Mělníku
(district economic savings society at
Mělník)
operated under the influence of the Young Czechs, who connected the dis-
618
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
trict segment
of territorial self-government with local financial sources. Soon af¬
terwards, in the small-town milieu, common interests were established and the
parties concerned did not forget about their own profit. The material and social ad¬
vancement of certain individuals aroused envy and quite logically, enquiries were
made about their sources. From doubts and gossip to investigation and court trial,
there is quite a long way. In the first place, the proverbial stone must be loosened to
start an avalanche. In the case of the
Mělník
savings society this happened during an
audit in the middle of the 1890s. The initial efforts to keep the actual situation under
a veil of secrecy and to draw up a bail-out plan ended with the actors unwilling¬
ness to contribute to the guarantee fund with their own funds. Next developments
were quite rapid and the savings society filed for bankruptcy about four months after
announcing its troubles to the public. The first trials were initiated by the receiver
who sued some functionaries and managers of the savings bank for the payment of
guarantees, loans and damages. In addition to these actions he lodged a complaint
against the representatives of the
Mělník
institution. Investigations by examining
magistrates resulted in two trials in which the management were accused of fraud,
embezzlement, and criminal bankruptcy. The sentences were quite lenient in com¬
parison with the extent of the losses because accountant and treasurer
František
V. Vinkler died and the defendants placed the blame on him.
Svatováclavská záložna
(Saint Wenceslas Savings Society) was sponsored by the
Catholic church and supported its organisational and political activities and ambi¬
tions. An outright bust connected with bankruptcy, which would swallow the sav¬
ings of thousands of depositors, was intolerable to the Catholic hierarchy and the
clerical political movement in the Bohemian Lands. The savings society was there¬
fore placed in a mode of silent liquidation and bailed out through the instrumentality
of two newly founded institutions, with the assistance of the Cisleithanian govern¬
ment, and with contributions from a number of Czech savings societies (with
Vino¬
hradská záložna
in the lead). By this the Catholic circles toned down the stupefying
impression and the effects of the fall of
Svatováclavská záložna,
which resonated
in Czech society for a long time and served as an effective argument in anticlerical
propaganda. It was difficult to reconcile the high embezzlements and frauds in insti¬
tutions with church administration and moreover, with the direct participation of a
priest and moral appeals to the purity of intents which the Catholic church liked to
stress. Especially before elections the Agrarians and Social Democrats recalled the
Saint Wenceslas Savings Bank case with malicious glee.
Self-government and Czech banks
in the second half of the 19th and first half of the 20th century
Self-government of the Bohemian Lands, after it was formed, gained experience
and established itself within the power institutional system of the monarchy and
society of the time, could not ignore the important economic and financial sphere.
Economic development of the Bohemian Lands in the final decades of the 19th cen¬
tury and in early 20th century stimulated growth and modernisation of municipali¬
ties, districts, and the whole country. Their development did not follow in passable
ways and a number of pitfalls awaited them. Local authorities had to rely in their
communal politics on financial support for the process of building, organisation and
operation of their institutions and the infrastructure in their territory.
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Local authorities had to react to economic developments, social or political prob¬
lems, and to the educational and cultural needs of the populations. The first step was
to build a modern functional infrastructure able to meet the increasing demands.
More extensive investments however required considerable funds that could be
raised with the support of financial institutions, including banks. A privileged posi¬
tion was held by
Zemská banka
v Praze
(Land Bank in Prague), which fulfilled its
basic task, which was to make relatively advantageous long-term massive loans for
building of communication systems, residential and administrative buildings and
service, educational and healthcare facilities. Identical types of banking institutes
operated in Moravia and Silesia though to a lesser extent. Commercial joint-stock
banks were contacted by municipal councils in cases of extraordinary expenditure.
Overall, credits enabled local authorities to make investments of public benefit and
social utility. The presence of major banks enhanced the image of the locality and
parallel participation of representatives of the elites in local government boosted
their prestige and brought them certain influence and advantage.
Evolution of administrative structures of private societary institutions
in the second and third decade of the 20th century
Statutory and other bodies of Agrarian Bank,
1911-1929
Private institutions (serving business activities) acquired in the Czech condi¬
tions a special significance from the second half of the 19th century. Until the First
World War government administration only retained a certain oversight and basic
normative regulation in the founding of new companies. Societary organisations
were governed by legislative acts of general binding force, such as the Commer¬
cial Code of
1875.
Towards the close of the 19th century joint-stock companies were
generally regulated by an ordinance of
29
September
1899.
These norms concerned
societary entities as such, without respecting more the specifics of each econom¬
ic sectors. An extraordinary situation arose during the First World War. After the
creation of the Czechoslovak Republic the government regulated the economy by
means of rationed economy, a follow-up on the war institutes. From the beginning
of the
1920s
the republic passed to liberalisation. It was soon established, however,
that the economy could not rely on market mechanisms only. Fundamental con¬
ceptual and developmental questions had to be kept under the government s obser¬
vation and influence.
These trends were also reflected in the banking sphere. During the existence of
Austria-Hungary there were no legislative norms dedicated directly to commercial
joint-stock banks. The Czechoslovak Republic only proceeded to interventions in
this traditional sphere of private business after upheavals in the credit system dur¬
ing the deflation crisis. It was seen then that it was necessary to regulate this area of
the national economy by law. They were passed in
1924
and they immediately regu¬
lated the operations and structures of commercial banks.
With regard to the organisational aspect, until the eruption of the First World
War Agrarian Bank managed to consolidate and stabilise itself at a perspective level.
Organisational structure of the institution was marked in the first years with all the
attributes of a start-up institution. Inexperience and certain fumbling were mani¬
fested for example in gradual spin-offs of some departments from the original uni¬
versal staff formation (so-called banking department). It took some time to build the
620
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
bank s professionally functioning internal organism bank, which could become in
the future a crystallisation core for the structures necessary to carry out the planned
tasks. In the conditions of the credit and monetary system of the
Habsburg
monar¬
chy the Agrarian financial institution was a small bank until July
1914
and its future
depended on both objective and subjective circumstances.
In wartime Agrarian Bank reacted to the changes in the business space it was
entering and in which it operated. The government s power interventions in the
distribution of agricultural produce and industrial products were logically reflect¬
ed in the bank s internal machinery. In
1914-1918
agriculture and related industry
increased in importance. Oriented in this direction, Agrarian Bank contributed to
the boom in primary production. Its increasing mobility and strength led it neces¬
sarily to more specialisation, expansion of the organisational units, and taking on
more staff. Until
1918
the priority position was held by the board of directors and
the directorate achieved more autonomy in time. By contrast, from the middle of the
1920s
the organisational structures of the institution show a clear strong position
of the directorate and the technical departments. Unlike the board of directors in
whose composition there were many changes, the core of the directorate remained
stable and maintained continuity. The second half of this decade was characterised
by innovations on the board of directors which economists with conceptual thinking
joined. They helped the bank overcome the crisis and proceeded more rationally.
The influence of the banking led to a new (meaningful) conception of the role of the
supervisory board which became the control instrument within the institution.
Efforts for financial support of the Czech minority in the north of our country
Severočeská banka v Litoměřicích
(North
Bohemia
Bank in
Litoměřice),
1920-1923
The economy of the newly established Czechoslovakia was set in dynamic mo¬
tion as early as the beginning of the
1920s.
This took place once the Czechoslovak
government agencies succeeded in creating order out of the post-war monetary and
financial chaos and to overcome a temporary paralysation of production caused by
shortages of raw material resources. These extraordinarily demanding tasks in the
first two years after the breakup of the monarchy were accomplished with the as¬
sistance of the state economic management. From the beginning of
1920
the entire
production sphere was directed to the tracks of private enterprise.
After the establishment of an independent republic the Czechoslovak credit sys¬
tem adapted to this modern-day
Gründer
trend. Qualitative growth of not only
small, medium-sized and large enterprises, but also
artisanal
trades, necessitated fi¬
nancial coverage and raising the stated capital. It is no surprise, therefore, that new
financial institutions, including joint-stock banks, emerged in this period.
The genesis and development of
Severočeská banka
reflected the actual national
policy and commercial enterprise conditions in the
Litoměřice
region and its vicin¬
ity in the first half of the 20th century. At the establishment of this institution, its op¬
erations and during its bailout an important role was played by national moments
-
support from the Czech minority in the region. This was the main reason for the
extraordinary attention paid to the bank by the Czechoslovak government agencies.
Severočeská banka
depended on their support for the entire period of its brief exist¬
ence. (However, government administration did not estimate the viability national
economic project for new institutions at the beginning of the 20th century).
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The banking structure of
Severočeská banka
was oriented for penetration of the
territory of north Bohemia predominantly settled by Germans, but also tried to cre¬
ate a presence for itself in the economically prosperous Czech region of
Roudnice,
which the founders of the institution envisaged as a springboard for the main mis¬
sion of
Severočeská banka.
A specific feature of this bank was the unequal relationship between the board of
directors and its representatives in the directorate, on the one hand, and the techni¬
cal managers on the other hand. The three-year activity of
Severočeská banka
is a
good example of the consequences of placing lay opinions and political principles of
the local representatives of the Czech minority above professional institutional lead¬
ership, which would push for proper management of the institution and the com¬
mercial banking activities. The unqualified management precipitated by its inter¬
ventions the bank s overall crisis and caused an appreciable amount of the losses.
The crucial question of successful banking business in the
Litoměřice
region and its
vicinity was to attract economically viable clients. It was precisely a lack of solid Czech
enterprises and a low number of creditworthy Czech traders that was fatal for the
bank in the end. Thus the only real benefit from the operations of
Severočeská banka
was to underwrite part of the deposits of the Czech minority in the north west border
areas and use of the head office of
Severočeská banka
and branches for later business
of
Pražská úvěrní banka
(Prague Credit Bank), which acquired certain positions in
those areas although the overall benefits of the merger were rather problematic.
It was seen that in north Bohemia small banking institutions, moreover with a
national slant, did not have great chances. A more extensive penetration of the do¬
main of German banking institutions could only be effected by major Prague-based
banks. In the first place this applies to
Živnostenská banka,
although it concentrated
its activities on penetration of large industrial enterprises in that region.
Relations between economic operators and professional associations
in the inter-war period
Agrární banka
(Agrarian Bank) and
Svaz československých
bank (Union
of Czechoslovak Banks),
1917-1929
Classic interest and professional associations in the area of industry, trade and
commerce in the territory of the Bohemian Lands were in the second half of the 19th
and early 20th century commercial and trade associations. After the establishment of
an independent republic their importance declined. This occurred because industri¬
alists who had frequently complained about the numerical superiority of small man¬
ufacturers in the chambers created other organisations which better lived up to their
ideals and protected with more emphasis the interests of large-scale production. The
umbrella industrial association in Czechoslovakia was the Central Union of Czech,
and later Czechoslovak Industrialists, created in
1918,
which brought together in its
ranks the existing professional associations. The Central Union was structured into
groups and sections. The unifying element was the central secretariat with special¬
ised departments. Some industrialists (of German origin, in particular) participated
in the activities of the Austrian Union of Industrialists which existed before
1918.
Af¬
ter the establishment of the Czechoslovak Republic its members from the Bohemian
Lands took part in the foundation of
Deutscher Hauptverband der
Industrie at Tep-
lice-Šanov.
622
MEZI BRÁZDOU A
BANKOVNIM
ÚVĚREM
Exploration
of the situation in a particular scholarly field, in the relation between
Agrarian Bank and the Union of Czechoslovak Banks in the inter-war period as a
model example of interactions between an economic operator and a professional
association suggests their possibilities, reality, and limits.
Cuite
logically, Agrarian
Bank wanted to champion its interests in the Union but had to make compromises
and reach consensus. For example, other Czech banking institutions disagreed with
preferential credit terms for agricultural organisations, the food industry, and indi¬
vidual farmers. The generally accepted agreements on debit and credit interest rates
which would rule out unfair competition. Problems however arose in their practi¬
cal application where the approach of the individual banks was not symmetrical.
Agrarian Bank usually honoured the agreements but
Živnostenská banka,
which
was economically much stronger, treated them much more freely. Another case in
point is employee questions in which the Union of Banks played the part of organi¬
sational centre in negotiations with the clerical workers. In this case too, Agrarian
Bank endeavoured to further its interests in the negotiations and respected their
results, though with certain reservations, while
Živnobanka
often proceeded inde¬
pendently and did not feel much bound by them.
Agrarian Bank had in the Union of Banks a much stronger position than would
equal its real economic position in the national economy of the Bohemian Lands
and Czechoslovak Republic. This is due to the fact that its managing director
Karel
Svoboda
chaired the Union for most of the duration of the First Republic. In this po¬
sition, which he doubtless owed to the links between Agrarian Bank and the ruling
Republican Party, he was able to shield his own institution and advance its interests,
being also a respected partner of major bank managers, high-ranking government
officials, and leading politicians.
Miscellanea from the daily routines of Czech banks
in the second half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century
An interesting and almost unknown chapter in the history of Czech banks is
their routine work, i.e. examining the work methods and procedures followed by
the managers, clerks and employees, and their internal operations. In this direction
we are however at the very beginning of research which is moreover hampered by
a lack
ofinformed
sources. (For example, only
Živnobanka
has published memoirs
of its officials.)
The names of managers of leading banks in the Bohemian Lands, and later the
Czechoslovak Republic, naturally give rise to further questions: From what families
did those personalities come, what was their education, career advance, in what
way did they take up the highest posts in the banks hierarchy, while their less suc¬
cessful colleagues became at the most managing clerks and those who were even
more unlucky only retired from positions of subaltern accounts receivable clerks;
how they lived outside their official duties.
Research has revealed that the banking system is not merely an almost impen¬
etrable maze of data and figures hidden in lofty banking palaces and in the gloom
of safes. Behind massive walls pulsated life in all its tonalities. An important part
was played by preliminary education, know-how, experience and resourcefulness
of the officials, the technical conditions of their work, as well as relations between
them, frequently inspired by jealousy and taunting, with which they added spice to
0
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what were often impersonal and dull routine activities. A widespread phenomenon
in banks was hierarchical inequality as there was a profound difference between
a manager and an accounts receivable clerk, in their income, workplace environ¬
ment and the like, but on the other hand their competences, level of decision-mak¬
ing and accountability. It is logical that clerks who had a sense of humour occasion¬
ally made jokes at the expense of their colleagues and clerks but also, secretly, at
the expense of their managers. For example, in the
1920s,
deputy managing direc¬
tor of
Živnostenská banka Jindřich Bělohlávek
was constantly demanding a stag
delivered from the Slovak town of
Ružomberok.
He was naturally assured that the
consignment had not arrived and nobody knew what could have happened to it, al¬
though it had long since variegated the home menu of the clerks in the secretariat.
Loans from central
Národní banka československá
(Czechoslovak National Bank)
for the manufacturing industry in
1926-1938
Important activities of the state central bank included granting credits which had
a positive effect on the monetary policy and the financial market. It was based on
discounting bills of exchange and lending of securities to financial institutions and
commercial joint-stock banks, which extended credit to industrial, trading, and ag¬
ricultural companies. The banks of issue were not supposed to extend credit to the
manufacturing industry or only exceptionally, in times of crisis or in cases of in¬
creased demand during seasonal campaigns.
The central issue institutions of the first Czechoslovak Bepublic, the Banking
Office of the Ministry of Finance and the Czechoslovak National Bank, were not
forbidden to carry out such activities by the basic norms but its types and methods
were regulated. The first governor of the National Bank,
Vilém Pospíšil,
refused the
possibility of credit in meetings of the Banking Board. Initially, the National Bank
released funds rather cautiously. A change took place at the close of the
1920s,
prob¬
ably in connection with the portents of the crisis and tension on the capital market.
Sales administration and the credit department then approved extensive credits for
the manufacturing industry. It is not known exactly to what extent the funds were
used because a number of enterprises clung conservatively to their former credit
centres, joint-stock commercial banks, and did not exploit other possibilities. The
National Bank s interest rates were logically lower, even by several percentage
points. The bank of issue therefore did not publicise much the credit operations as it
was essentially unfair competition .
The total sums released by the Czechoslovak National Bank did not and could
not equal the amount of loans from commercial banks. In this situation, at the end
of the
1920s
and
1930s,
they meant not negligible aid for many firms, enabling them
to stabilise their internal financial circumstances and facilitated their expansion to
foreign markets. Direct export credits were used for exports as a specific part of the
National Bank credits. (Their protagonist was Governor
Karel Engliš.).
In granting
credits the bank of issue took into account the state of the national economy and
the lobbying of some circles, in particular a group around Anglo-Czechoslovak and
Prague Credit Bank. An extension of the credits granted by the Czechoslovak Nation¬
al Bank to the manufacturing industry was probably necessitated by the economic
practice that outweighed the traditional and perhaps a little conservative and stere¬
otype notions about the role of the central bank in the state loan system.
624
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
Czechoslovak loan in London
1922
An encounter between Czech and British financial elites
The Czechoslovak government loan from the United Kingdom, although it was
formally justified by modernisation investment expenditure and by having a stabili¬
sation effect on the rate of exchange, and although it really raised the exchange rate
of the Czechoslovak crown, had a foreign policy aspect of no less importance (estab¬
lishment of close friendly relations). This was the origin of the initiative to start the
talks that came from the foreign minister and later premier. From the very outset
the talks were characterised by the parties evident inequality. The main partners for
the prime minister and foreign minister
Edvard
Beneš
were secretaries at the Brit¬
ish Embassy in Prague, Cecil and Bruce
Lockhart.
Typically, this is correlated with
the attention of the press, the public, and parliamentary policy. Whereas the loan
became the subject of talks in Parliament, government, and lengthy discussions and
speculations of the daily press in Czechoslovakia, only two sentences were voiced
on this theme in the United Kingdom during a parliamentary interpellation, and The
Times only referred to the issue in a short news item that year.
The loan talks were conducted with consummate skill on the Czechoslovak side
by the political management of the State. On the outside the state political manage¬
ment was represented by prime minister and foreign minister
Edvard Beneš.
Cru¬
cial decisions concerning foreign policy were taken until the turn of the thirties by
President
Tomáš G.
Masaryk
and
Beneš
consulted him about all his momentous de¬
cisions. State economic management, in the first place the ministry of finance and
its chief, acted in the talks not as negotiator but as implementator (ensuring the
loan would be approved in Parliament and its economic use). The business sector,
the banking elites that framed the Czechoslovak economic policy in the first post¬
war years were not invited to participate in the negotiations or consulted as experts.
This can be explained by fears that the soundings would be prematurely and knowl¬
edge of the Czechoslovak banking milieu, which had practically no international
experience in western financial markets and in the British market represented a
completely unknown quantity. The Czech financial elites were elites of the first two
generations, at the most, elites that had not year created, like the British City, their
professional distinctions and did not see themselves as an elite
ofthat
sort.
Confidence of the representatives of British high finance in the long-term sta¬
bility of Central Europe was not high. This fact was reflected in the relatively strict
terms of the loan expressed by high interest and discharge of various financial ob¬
ligations of the Czechoslovak State or its citizens. We probably will not be far from
reality if we designate the loan underwritten by the British banking houses as a
speculative deal.
Close collaboration between high finances, including such private banking hous¬
es as Baring Brothers, Rothschilds or
Schröders,
and British foreign policy, collabo¬
ration which led to the creation of certain communication mechanisms, stands in
sharp contrast with the enormous distance between the representation of Czecho¬
slovak foreign policy and the elites of Czechoslovak banking which were not invited
to such an important act as the first major foreign loan for Czechoslovakia, even as
experts. For a long time the Czechoslovak State could not find a position for mutual
communication and cooperation. It was not only the English bankers who looked
down on the representatives of Czech banking. They were also scorned by the key
personality of Czech politics, President T.G.
Masaryk.
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625
The inexperience of the Czechoslovak delegates should not be interpreted in a
simplified fashion as incompetence. They gradually found their bearings and the
course of the talks shows how their negotiating skills improved. The study as a
whole contrasts the awkward moves of the Czechoslovak financial expert
Vilém
Pospíšil
with the flexibility and extremely high negotiating potential of the head of
Czechoslovak diplomacy,
Edvard Beneš,
who succeeded in unblocking the loan ne¬
gotiations and bringing them to a successful conclusion.
MEZI BRÁZDOU A BANKOVNÍM ÚVĚREM
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Šouša, Jiří 1952- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1014052734 |
| author_facet | Šouša, Jiří 1952- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Šouša, Jiří 1952- |
| author_variant | j š jš |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040892898 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)844038462 (DE-599)BVBBV040892898 |
| edition | Vyd. 1. |
| era | Geschichte 1848-1938 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1848-1938 |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content (DE-588)4006432-3 Bibliografie gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Aufsatzsammlung Bibliografie |
| geographic | Böhmische Länder (DE-588)4069573-6 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Böhmische Länder |
| id | DE-604.BV040892898 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-20T16:26:38Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788074690020 9788074150630 |
| language | Czech |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025872505 |
| oclc_num | 844038462 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-M457 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-M457 |
| physical | 641 S. Ill. |
| publishDate | 2012 |
| publishDateSearch | 2012 |
| publishDateSort | 2012 |
| publisher | Národní Archiv v Praze [u.a.] |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | Šouša, Jiří 1952- Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám Šouša, Jiří 1952- (DE-588)1014052734 gnd Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 gnd Finanzwirtschaft (DE-588)4017214-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)1014052734 (DE-588)4034402-2 (DE-588)4017214-4 (DE-588)4069573-6 (DE-588)4143413-4 (DE-588)4006432-3 |
| title | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám |
| title_auth | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám |
| title_exact_search | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám |
| title_full | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám Jiří Šouša. K vyd. připravili Jan Kahuda ... |
| title_fullStr | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám Jiří Šouša. K vyd. připravili Jan Kahuda ... |
| title_full_unstemmed | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám Jiří Šouša. K vyd. připravili Jan Kahuda ... |
| title_short | Mezi brázdou a bankovním úvěrem |
| title_sort | mezi brazdou a bankovnim uverem o agrarnich a peneznich dejinach 19 a 20 stoleti vybor praci k 60 narozeninam |
| title_sub | o agrárních a peněžních dějinách 19. a 20. století ; výbor prací k 60. narozeninám |
| topic | Šouša, Jiří 1952- (DE-588)1014052734 gnd Landwirtschaft (DE-588)4034402-2 gnd Finanzwirtschaft (DE-588)4017214-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Šouša, Jiří 1952- Landwirtschaft Finanzwirtschaft Böhmische Länder Aufsatzsammlung Bibliografie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025872505&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025872505&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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