The garbage collection handbook: the art of automatic memory management
Gespeichert in:
| Beteiligte Personen: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Englisch |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Boca Raton [u.a.]
CRC Pr.
2012
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Applied algorithms and data structures series
|
| Schlagwörter: | |
| Links: | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024497338&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| Umfang: | XXX, 487 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9781420082791 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Titel: The garbage collection handbook
Autor: Jones, Richard
Jahr: 2012
Contents List of Algorithms xv List of Figures xix List of Tables xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgements xxvii Authors xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Explicit deallocation................................ 2 1.2 Automatic dynamic memory management................... 3 1.3 Comparing garbage collection algorithms................... 5 Safety........................................ 6 Throughput..................................... 6 Completeness and promptness.......................... 6 Pause time..................................... 7 Space overhead................................... 8 Optimisations for specific languages...................... 8 Scalability and portability............................. 9 1.4 A performance disadvantage?............. 9 1.5 Experimental methodology............................ 10 1.6 Terminology and notation............................ 11 The heap ...................................... 11 The mutator and the collector.......................... 12 The mutator roots................................. 12 References, fields and addresses......................... 13 Liveness, correctness and reachability...................... 13 Pseudo-code.................................... 14 The allocator.................................... 14 Mutator read and write operations ....................... 14 Atomic operations................................. 15 Sets, multisets, sequences and tuples...................... 15 vii
viii CONTENTS 2 Mark-sweep garbage collection 17 2.1 The mark-sweep algorithm............................ 18 2.2 The tricolour abstraction............................. 20 2.3 Improving mark-sweep.............................. 21 2.4 Bitmap marking.................................. 22 2.5 Lazy sweeping................................... 24 2.6 Cache misses in the marking loop........................ 27 2.7 Issues to consider................................. 29 Mutator overhead................................. 29 Throughput..................................... 29 Space usage..................................... 29 To move or not to move?............................ . 30 3 Mark-compact garbage collection 31 3.1 Two-finger compaction.............................. 32 3.2 The Lisp 2 algorithm ............................... 34 3.3 Threaded compaction............................... 36 3.4 One-pass algorithms................................ 38 3.5 Issues to consider................................. 40 Is compaction necessary?............................. 40 Throughput costs of compaction......................... 41 Long-lived data.................................. 41 Locality....................................... 41 Limitations of mark-compact algorithms.................... 42 4 Copying garbage collection 43 4.1 Semispace copying collection........................... 43 Work list implementations............................ 44 An example..................................... 46 4.2 Traversal order and locality............................ 46 4.3 Issues to consider................................. 53 Allocation...................................... 53 Space and locality................................. 54 Moving objects................................... 55 5 Reference counting 57 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of reference counting ............ 58 5.2 Improving efficiency................................ 60 5.3 Deferred
reference counting........................... 61 5.4 Coalesced reference counting........................... 63 5.5 Cyclic reference counting............................. 66 5.6 Limited-field reference counting......................... 72 5.7 Issues to consider................................. 73 The environment.................................. 73 Advanced solutions................................ 74 6 Comparing garbage collectors 77 6.1 Throughput..................................... 77 6.2 Pause time..................................... 78 6.3 Space ........................................ 78 6.4 Implementation.................................. 79
CONTENTS IX 6.5 Adaptive systems................................. 80 6.6 A unified theory of garbage collection ..................... 80 Abstract garbage collection............................ 81 Tracing garbage collection............................ 81 Reference counting garbage collection..................... 82 7 Allocation 87 7.1 Sequential allocation ............................... 87 7.2 Free-list allocation................................. 88 First-fit allocation................................. 89 Next-fit allocation................................. 90 Best-fit allocation.................................. 90 Speeding free-list allocation ........................... 92 7.3 Fragmentation................................... 93 7.4 Segregated-fits allocation............................. 93 Fragmentation................................... 95 Populating size classes.............................. 95 7.5 Combining segregated-fits with first-, best- and next-fit........... 96 7.6 Additional considerations ............................ 97 Alignment ..................................... 97 Size constraints................................... 98 Boundary tags................................... 98 Heap payability.................................. 98 Locality....................................... 100 Wilderness preservation .............................100 Crossing maps................................... 101 7.7 Allocation in concurrent systems ........................101 7.8 Issues to consider................................. 102 8 Partitioning the heap 103 8.1 Terminology.................................... 103 8.2 Why to partition..................................103 Partitioning by mobility.............................. 104 Partitioning by size................................ 104 Partitioning for space............................... 104 Partitioning by kind................................105 Partitioning for
yield.................. 105 Partitioning to reduce pause time........................106 Partitioning for locality.............................. 106 Partitioning by thread...............................107 Partitioning by availability............................107 Partitioning by mutability ............................ 108 8.3 How to partition.................................. 108 8.4 When to partition................................. 109 9 Generational garbage collection 111 9.1 Example....................................... 112 9.2 Measuring time .................................. 113 9.3 Generational hypotheses............................. 113 9.4 Generations and heap layout........................... 114 9.5 Multiple generations ............................... 115
X CONTENTS 9.6 Age recording...................................116 En masse promotion................................116 Aging semispaces.................................116 Survivor spaces and flexibility..........................119 9.7 Adapting to program behaviour.........................121 Appel-style garbage collection..........................121 Feedback controlled promotion.........................123 9.8 Inter-generational pointers............................123 Remembered sets .................................124 Pointer direction..................................125 9.9 Space management................................126 9.10 Older-first garbage collection...........................127 9.11 Beltway.......................................130 9.12 Analytic support for generational collection..................132 9.13 Issues to consider.................................133 9.14 Abstract generational garbage collection....................134 10 Other partitioned schemes 137 10.1 Large object spaces ................................137 The Treadmill garbage collector.........................138 Moving objects with operating system support................139 Pointer-free objects ................................140 10.2 Topological collectors...................... 140 Matine object space garbage collection.....................140 Connectivity-based garbage collection.....................143 Thread-local garbage collection.........................144 Stack allocation...................................147 Region inferencing.................................148 10.3 Hybrid mark-sweep, copying collectors ....................149 Garbage-First....................................150 Immix and others.................................151 Copying collection in a constrained memory space..............154 10.4 Bookmarking garbage collection.........................156 10.5 Ulterior reference
counting............................157 10.6 Issues to consider.................................158 11 Run-time interface 161 11.1 Interface to allocation...............................161 Speeding allocation................................164 Zeroing.......................................165 11.2 Finding pointers..................................166 Conservative pointer finding.......................... 166 Accurate pointer finding using tagged values.................168 Accurate pointer finding in objects .......................169 Accurate pointer finding in global roots ....................171 Accurate pointer finding in stacks and registers................171 Accurate pointer finding in code.........................181 Handling interior pointers............................182 Handling derived pointers............................183 11.3 Object tables....................................184 11.4 References from external code..........................185
CONTENTS xi 11.5 Stack barriers....................................186 11.6 GC-safe points and mutator suspension....................187 11.7 Garbage collecting code..............................190 11.8 Read and write barriers..............................191 Engineering.....................................191 Precision of write barriers.............................192 Hash tables.....................................194 Sequential store buffers..............................195 Overflow action..................................196 Card tables.....................................197 Crossing maps...................................199 Summarising cards ................................201 Hardware and virtual memory techniques...................202 Write barrier mechanisms: in summary.....................202 Chunked lists....................................203 11.9 Managing address space.............................203 11.10 Applications of virtual memory page protection................205 Double mapping..................................206 Applications of no-access pages.........................206 11.11 Choosing heap size................................208 11.12 Issues to consider.................................210 12 Language-specific concerns 213 12.1 Finalisation.....................................213 When do finalisers run?..............................214 Which thread runs a finaliser?..........................215 Can finalisers run concurrently with each other? ...............216 Can finalisers access the object that became unreachable?..........216 When are finalised objects reclaimed?......................216 What happens if there is an error in a finaliser?................217 Is there any guaranteed order to finalisation?.................217 The finalisation race problem............................218 Finalisers and locks................................219 Finalisation in particular
languages.......................219 For further study..................................221 12.2 Weak references..................................221 Additional motivations................. 222 Supporting multiple pointer strengths.....................223 Using Phantom objects to control finalisation order..............225 Race in weak pointer clearing..........................226 Notification of weak pointer clearing......................226 Weak pointers in other languages........................226 12.3 Issues to consider.................................228 13 Concurrency preliminaries 229 13.1 Hardware......................................229 Processors and threads..............................229 Interconnect ....................................230 Memory.......................................231 Caches........................................231 Coherence......................................232
CONTENTS Cache coherence performance example: spin locks.............. 13.2 Hardware memory consistency......................... Fences and happens-before............................ Consistency models................................ 13.3 Hardware primitives............................... Compare-and-swap................................ Load-linked/store-conditionally......................... Atomic arithmetic primitives........................... Test then test-and-set............................... More powerful primitives ............................ Overheads of atomic primitives......................... 13.4 Progress guarantees................................ Progress guarantees and concurrent collection................. 13.5 Notation used for concurrent algorithms.................... 13.6 Mutual exclusion.................................. 13.7 Work sharing and termination detection.................... Rendezvous barriers................................ 13.8 Concurrent data structures............................ Concurrent stacks................................. Concurrent queue implemented with singly linked list............ Concurrent queue implemented with array.................. A concurrent deque for work stealing...................... 13.9 Transactional memory............................... What is transactional memory? ......................... Using transactional memory to help implement collection.......... Supporting transactional memory in the presence of garbage collection . . 13.10 Issues to consider................................. 14 Parallel garbage collection 14.1 Is there sufficient work to parallelise?...................... 14.2 Load balancing................................... 14.3 Synchronisation.................................. 14.4 Taxonomy...................................... 14.5 Parallel marking.................................. Processor-centric techniques...........................
14.6 Parallel copying.................................. Processor-centric techniques........................... Memory-centric techniques............................ 14.7 Parallel sweeping............................... . . 14.8 Parallel compaction................................ 14.9 Issues to consider................................. Terminology.................................... Is parallel collection worthwhile?........................ Strategies for balancing loads .......................... Managing tracing................................. Low-level synchronisation............................ Sweeping and compaction............................ Termination..................................... 232 234 236 236 237 237 238 240 240 240 242 243 244 245 246 248 251 253 256 256 261 267 267 267 270 272 273 275 276 277 278 279 279 280 289 289 294 299 299 302 302 303 303 303 305 305 306
CONTENTS xiii 15 Concurrent garbage collection 307 15.1 Correctness of concurrent collection.......................309 The tricolour abstraction, revisited .......................309 The lost object problem..............................310 The strong and weak tricolour invariants....................312 Precision ......................................313 Mutator colour...................................313 Allocation colour..................................314 Incremental update solutions...........................314 Snapshot-at-the-beginning solutions ......................314 15.2 Barrier techniques for concurrent collection..................315 Grey mutator techniques.............................315 Black mutator techniques.............................317 Completeness of barrier techniques.......................317 Concurrent write barrier mechanisms......................318 One-level card tables ...............................319 Two-level card tables...............................319 Reducing work...................................320 15.3 Issues to consider.................................321 16 Concurrent mark-sweep 323 16.1 Initialisation....................................323 16.2 Termination.....................................324 16.3 Allocation......................................325 16.4 Concurrent marking and sweeping.......................326 16.5 On-the-fly marking................................328 Write barriers for on-the-fly collection .....................328 Doligez-Leroy-Gonthier..............................329 Doligez-Leroy-Gonthier for Java.........................330 Sliding views....................................331 16.6 Abstract concurrent collection..........................331 The collector wavefront..............................334 Adding origins...................................334 Mutator barriers..................................334 Precision
......................................334 Instantiating collectors ..............................335 16.7 Issues to consider.................... 335 17 Concurrent copying compaction 337 17.1 Mostly-concurrent copying: Baker s algorithm ................337 Mostly-concurrent, mostly-copying collection.................338 17.2 Brooks s indirection barrier............................340 17.3 Self-erasing read barriers.............................340 17.4 Replication copying................................341 17.5 Multi-version copying...............................342 Extensions to avoid copy-on-write........................344 17.6 Sapphire ......................................345 Collector phases..................................346 Merging phases ..................................351 Volatile fields....................................351 17.7 Concurrent compaction..............................351
XIV CONTENTS Compressor.....................................352 Pauseless......................................355 17.8 Issues to consider.................................361 18 Concurrent reference counting 363 18.1 Simple reference counting revisited.......................363 18.2 Buffered reference counting ...........................366 18.3 Concurrent, cyclic reference counting......................366 18.4 Taking a snapshot of the heap..........................368 18.5 Sliding views reference counting.........................369 Age-oriented collection..............................370 The algorithm...................................370 Sliding views cycle reclamation.........................372 Memory consistency................................373 18.6 Issues to consider.................................374 19 Real-time garbage collection 375 19.1 Real-time systems.................................375 19.2 Scheduling real-time collection..........................376 19.3 Work-based real-time collection.........................377 Parallel, concurrent replication..........................377 Uneven work and its impact on work-based scheduling...........384 19.4 Slack-based real-time collection.........................386 Scheduling the collector work..........................389 Execution overheads ...............................390 Programmer input.................................391 19.5 Time-based real-time collection: Metronome..................391 Mutator utilisation.................................391 Supporting predictability.............................393 Analysis.......................................395 Robustness.....................................399 19.6 Combining scheduling approaches: Tax-and-Spend..............399 Tax-and-Spend scheduling............................400 Tax-and-Spend prerequisites...........................401 19.7 Controlling fragmentation............................403
Incremental compaction in Metronome.....................404 Incremental replication on uniprocessors....................405 Stopless: lock-free garbage collection......................406 Staccato: best-effort compaction with mutator wait-freedom.........407 Chicken: best-effort compaction with mutator wait-freedom for x86 .... 410 Clover: guaranteed compaction with probabilistic mutator lock-freedom . 410 Stopless versus Chicken versus Clover.....................412 Fragmented allocation...............................412 19.8 Issues to consider.................................415 Glossary 417 Bibliography 429 Index 463
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