Verfügbarkeit: The manual of photography | Technische Universität München

The manual of photography:

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Beteilige Person:	Allen, Elizabeth (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier [u.a.] 2011
Ausgabe:	10. ed.
Schlagwörter:	Digitale Fotografie Fotografie
Links:	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024460759&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
Umfang:	XVIII, 566 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst. 25 cm
ISBN:	9780240520377

Internformat

MARC


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245	1	0	\|a The manual of photography \|c ed. by Elizabeth Allen ; Sophie Triantaphillidou. [With contrib. by Geoffrey Attridge ...]
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Datensatz im Suchindex

_version_	1819258442136682496
adam_text	Preface ....................................................................xv Editors Acknowledgements ...............................xvii Author Biographies ............................................xviii 1. Introduction to the imaging process ...........1 Introduction ............................................................1 The imaging process ...............................................2 Image control ..........................................................3 Control of image shape .....................................3 Depth of field ......................................................5 Tone and contrast ...............................................5 Colour .................................................................. б The origins of photography ..................................6 Camera obscura .................................................. б Early experiments ............................................... б Towards the development process — the Daguerreotype .....................................................7 The negative—positive process ..........................7 Modern materials ...............................................7 Photographic imaging today .................................8 Characteristics of photographic materials .......8 Capturing colour ................................................9 Digital imaging .....................................................10 Early digital images ..........................................10 The CMOS sensor .............................................11 Colour digital capture ......................................11 Other digital devices ........................................12 Digital image representation ...............................12 Spatial resolution .............................................14 Bit depth ............................................................14 Colour representation ......................................15 File size and file formats .................................15 Imaging chains ......................................................15 Evaluating image quality .....................................17 Bibliography ..........................................................18 2. Light theory ..................................................19 Introduction ..........................................................19 A brief history of light theory .............................19 Wave—particle duality ..........................................20 The nature of light ................................................20 Radiometry and photometry ...............................21 Radiometrie definitions ...................................21 Photometric definitions ...................................21 Optics .....................................................................21 Wave theory ..........................................................22 Simple harmonic motion ................................23 Principle of superposition ...............................25 Plane waves .......................................................27 Light intensity ...................................................27 Refraction and dispersion ................................27 Polarization .......................................................28 Interference ........................................................30 Diffraction .........................................................32 Diffraction of a circular aperture and a single slit .................................................32 Rayleigh criterion ..............................................34 The electromagnetic spectrum ............................35 Black-body radiation ............................................37 Wien s Displacement Law ...............................38 Planck s Law ......................................................38 The photoelectric effect ........................................39 The photon ............................................................40 Bohr model of the atom ......................................40 The emission of electromagnetic radiation in atoms ................................................41 Bibliography ..........................................................42 3. Photographic light sources .........................43 Introduction ..........................................................43 Characteristics of light sources ............................43 Spectral quality .................................................43 Spectral power distribution curve ..................43 Colour temperature ..........................................44 Colour rendering ..............................................45 Percentage content of primary hues ...............45 Measurement and control of colour temperature .......................................................45 Contents The mired scale .................................................46 Light output ..........................................................46 Units ...................................................................46 Illumination laws .............................................46 Reflectors and luminaires ................................47 Constancy of output ........................................48 Efficiency ...........................................................48 Daylight .................................................................48 Tungsten filament lamps .....................................49 Tungsten-halogen lamps ....................................49 Fluorescent lamps .................................................50 Metal-halide lamps ...............................................50 Pulsed xenon lamps .............................................50 Expendable flashbulbs .........................................50 Electronic flash ......................................................52 Flash circuitry ....................................................52 Flash output and power ..................................52 Flash duration and exposure ...........................53 Portable units ....................................................53 Studio flash .......................................................53 Automatic flash exposure ................................54 Integral flash units ............................................54 Red-eye avoidance ............................................55 Other sources ........................................................55 Light-emitting diodes .......................................55 Diode lasers .......................................................57 Bibliography ..........................................................57 4. The human visual system ...........................59 Introduction ..........................................................59 The physical structure of the human eye ...........59 Tunics .................................................................60 Cornea ...............................................................60 Conjunctiva .......................................................60 Iris and pupil ....................................................60 Crystalline lens .................................................61 Ciliary body ......................................................61 Vitreous cavity and vitreous humour .............61 Retina and choroid ...........................................61 Optic nerve ........................................................62 Structure of the retina ......................................62 Rods and cones .................................................64 Non-imaging cell layers .................................66 Receptive fields .................................................67 Dark adaptation ....................................................68 Elementary colour vision .....................................69 Young— Heimholte theory of colour vision .................................................................69 Opponent theory of colour vision .................69 Colour anomalous vision ....................................69 Movement and Focusing .....................................70 Focusing and correction of eyesight ...............70 Movement .........................................................71 The visual pathway ...............................................72 Visual cortex ......................................................72 Binocular vision ....................................................72 Performance of the eye ........................................73 Luminance discrimination ..............................73 Contrast sensitivity function ...........................74 Visual acuity ......................................................74 Animal vision ........................................................74 Bibliography ..........................................................76 5. Introduction to colour science ...................77 Introduction ..........................................................77 The physics of colour ...........................................77 Colour terminology .............................................77 The colour of objects ...........................................78 Spectral absorptance, reflectance and transmittance ....................................................79 CIE standard illuminating and viewing geometries .............................................................80 CIE standard illuminants and sources ...............81 Models of colour vision .......................................82 The basics of colorimetry ....................................84 Colour matching functions and the CIE standard observers ............................................86 Calculating tristimulus values from spectral data ......................................................87 Chromaticity diagrams ....................................88 CIE uniform colour spaces and colour differences .........................................................91 Metamerism and types of metamerie matches ..............................................................92 The appearance of colours ..................................94 Visual adaptation and related mechanisms ......................................................94 Other colour appearance phenomena ...........96 An introduction to CATs and CAMs ..................97 A generalized CAT ............................................97 Colour appearance models (CAMs) ...............98 Colour reproduction ............................................98 Objectives of colour reproduction .................99 Instruments used in colour measurement .......100 Viewing conditions .............................................101 Bibliography ........................................................102 6. Photographic and geometrical optics ......103 Introduction ........................................................103 Photographic optics ...........................................103 Optical materials ............................................103 Reflection .........................................................104 Refraction ........................................................104 Transmission ...................................................104 Dispersion .......................................................105 Polarization .....................................................105 Geometrical optics .............................................106 Simple lens ......................................................106 Cardinal planes ...............................................106 Focal length .....................................................107 Contents Image magnification...................................... 108 Mirrors .............................................................109 Optical calculations ............................................109 Parameters .......................................................109 Equations .........................................................109 Focusing movements .....................................110 Depth of field and depth of focus ................ Ill The photometry of image formation ............... Ill Stops and pupils ............................................. Ill Aperture ...........................................................112 Image luminance and illumination .............112 Image illuminance ..........................................113 Exposure compensation for close-up photography ....................................................114 Lens flare .........................................................114 T-numbers .......................................................115 Anti-reflection coatings ..................................115 Types of coating ..............................................116 Bibliography ........................................................117 m 7. Images and image formation ...................119 Introduction ........................................................119 Sinusoidal waves ................................................120 Modulation .....................................................121 Images and sine waves ...................................121 Imaging sinusoidal patterns ..........................123 Fourier theory of image formation ..................124 Linear, spatially invariant systems ................124 Spread functions .............................................125 The point spread function (PSF)..................126 The line spread function (LSF) .....................126 The edge spread function (ESF) ....................126 The imaging equation (from input to output) ........................................................127 The imaging equation in one dimension.... 128 The modulation transfer function (MTF)....128 Special Fourier transform pairs .........................130 The rectangular function ................................130 The Dirac delta function ................................130 Properties of б(х) ............................................131 Importance of б(х) .........................................132 The Gaussian function ...................................132 The modulation transfer function revisited ...............................................................132 Cascading of MTFs .........................................133 Convolution revisited ........................................133 A geometric interpretation of convolution .....................................................133 The convolution theorem ..............................133 Discrete transforms and sampling ....................134 Undersampling a cosine wave ......................134 The Dirac comb (the sampling function) ... 134 The process of sampling ................................135 The MTF for a CCD imaging array ...............137 Bibliography ........................................................138 8. Sensitometry ...............................................139 Introduction ........................................................139 The subject ..........................................................139 Exposure ..............................................................139 Density and other relevant measures ...............140 Transmittance ..................................................140 Opacity ............................................................140 Density .............................................................140 Effect of light scatter in a negative ...................140 Callier coefficient ............................................141 Density in practice ..............................................142 The Characteristic (H and D) curve .................143 Main regions of the negative characteristic curve .................................................................143 Variation of the characteristic curve with the material .....................................................144 Gamma—time curve .......................................145 Variation of gamma with wavelength ..........145 Placing the subject on the characteristic curve .....................................................................146 Effect of variation of exposure of the negative ............................................................146 Average gradient and G ......................................146 Contrast index .....................................................147 Effect of variation in development on the negative ................................................................147 Exposure latitude ................................................147 The response curve of a photographic paper ....................................................................148 Maximum black ..............................................148 Exposure range of a paper .............................149 Variation of the print characteristic curve with the type of emulsion ...................149 Variation of the print characteristic curve with development ................................149 Requirements in a print .....................................150 Paper contrast .................................................150 Reciprocity law failure .......................................151 Practical effects of reciprocity failure ...........151 Intermittency effect .........................................152 Sensitometers ......................................................152 Densitometers .....................................................152 Microdensitometers ........................................153 Colour densitometers ....................................153 Bibliography ........................................................154 9. Image sensors .............................................155 Introduction ........................................................155 Materials and detection of light .......................155 Conductors, insulators and semiconductors ...............................................156 Doping .............................................................157 Photoemission and photoabsorption ..........158 Diodes ..............................................................159 Transistors .......................................................159 VII Contents CCD and CMOS sensors ...............................159 MOS capacitor ................................................159 Photodiodes ....................................................160 Pixels ................................................................160 CCD and CMOS image readout .......................160 CCD readout ...................................................161 CMOS readout ................................................164 Amplification and analogue-to-digital conversion ...........................................................164 Scanning methods ..............................................166 Imaging performance .........................................167 Performance trade-offs ...................................167 Microlens arrays ..............................................169 Sensitivity ........................................................169 Exposure control .............................................170 Sensor imperfections ......................................171 Generating colour ...........................................171 Bibliography ........................................................173 10. Camera lenses ............................................175 Lens aberrations .................................................175 Introduction ....................................................175 Axial chromatic aberration ............................175 Lateral chromatic aberration .........................176 Spherical aberration .......................................177 Coma ...............................................................178 Curvature of field ...........................................178 Astigmatism ....................................................178 Curvilinear distortion ....................................178 Lens aperture and performance ....................180 Photographic lenses ...........................................180 Photographic lens types ....................................181 Simple lenses ..................................................181 Compound lenses ..........................................181 Development of the photographic lens ...................................................................182 Simple lenses and achromats .......................182 The Petzval lens ..............................................182 Symmetrical doublets ....................................182 Anastigmats .....................................................183 Triplets .............................................................184 Double-Gauss lenses ......................................184 Modern camera lenses .......................................184 Wide-angle lenses ...............................................185 Symmetrical-derivative lenses .......................185 Retrofocus lenses ............................................186 Fish-eye lenses ................................................186 Long-focus lenses ...............................................186 Long-focus designs .........................................186 Telephoto lenses .............................................186 Catadioptric lenses ( mirror lenses ) ............187 Zoom and varifocal lenses ................................188 Zoom lenses ....................................................188 Zoom lenses for compact and digital cameras ............................................................190 Macro lenses .......................................................191 Optical attachments ...........................................191 Afocal converter lenses ..................................191 Close-up (supplementary) lenses .................192 Other attachments ..........................................192 Teleconverters .................................................193 Optical filters ......................................................194 Absorption filters ............................................194 UV and IR filters .............................................195 Neutral-density filters ....................................196 Polarizing filters .............................................196 Bibliography .......................................................197 11. Photographic camera systems ..................199 Introduction ........................................................199 Image format ......................................................199 Camera types ......................................................199 Simple cameras ...............................................199 Compact cameras ...........................................200 Rangefinder cameras ......................................202 Twin-lens reflex (TLR) cameras ....................202 Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras ...................202 Technical cameras ..........................................203 Special-purpose cameras ...................................204 Cameras for self-developing materials ........204 Aerial cameras .................................................204 Underwater cameras ......................................204 Ultrawide-angle cameras ...............................204 Panoramic cameras ........................................205 Automatic cameras .............................................206 Analogue systems ...........................................206 Digital control ................................................206 Camera features ..................................................207 Shutter systems ...............................................207 Flash synchronization ....................................209 The iris diaphragm .........................................211 Viewfinder systems .........................................213 Focusing systems ............................................214 Autofocus systems ..........................................217 Exposure metering systems ...............................219 Automatic exposure .......................................219 Programmed exposure modes ......................219 Segmented photocell systems .......................221 Battery power ......................................................222 Camera shake and image stabilization ............223 Camera movements ...........................................224 Bibliography .......................................................225 12. Exposure and image control ....................227 Camera exposure ................................................227 Exposure relationships and logarithms ...........228 Relative aperture .............................................229 Shutter speed ..................................................229 Subject luminance ratio .....................................229 Dynamic range of sensors .................................230 VIII Contents Optimum exposure and the transfer function ...............................................................231 Exposure meters .................................................232 Hand-held exposure meters ..........................232 Acceptance angle ............................................234 Exposure values ..............................................235 Exposure factors .............................................235 Reciprocity law failure .......................................236 Types of light measurement ..............................237 Incident light measurement ..........................237 Reflected light measurement .........................237 In-camera metering modes ...............................237 Spot metering .................................................237 Partial area metering ......................................237 Centre-weighted average metering ...............237 Matrix or multi-zone metering .....................238 Electronic flash exposure ...................................238 Guide numbers ...............................................238 Reflected light measurement techniques .........239 Measurement of total scene luminance .......................................................239 Measuring a middle grey surface (key tone) ........................................................239 Measurement of luminance of the darkest shadow ...............................................240 Measurement of luminance of the lightest highlight ............................................240 Averaging values .............................................240 Exposure techniques and digital cameras ................................................................240 Using the image histogram ...........................240 Exposing to the right ....................................241 The zone system .................................................241 The zones ........................................................241 The zone system and digital cameras ..........242 High-dynamic-range (HDR) imaging ..............242 Bibliography .......................................................243 13. Image formation and the photographic process ........................................................245 Introduction ........................................................245 Silver halides .......................................................245 Latent image formation .....................................247 Spectral sensitivity of photographic materials ..............................................................248 Response of photographic materials to short-wave radiation .................................248 Response of photographic materials to visible radiation .........................................249 Spectral sensitization .........................................249 Orthochromatic materials .............................249 Panchromatic materials .................................249 Extended sensitivity materials .......................250 Infrared materials ...........................................250 Other uses of dye sensitization ....................250 Structure of photographic materials ................251 Production of light-sensitive materials and sensors .....................................................251 The support .....................................................252 Coating the photographic emulsion ............252 Sizes and formats of photographic materials ..............................................................253 Speed of photographic materials .....................253 Speed systems and standards ........................254 Characteristics of photographic materials ..............................................................255 Graininess and granularity ............................255 Contrast ...........................................................255 Sharpness and acutance .................................256 Chemistry of the photographic process ...........256 Developers and development .......................256 Composition of a developing solution .......256 Developing agents ..........................................257 Preservatives ....................................................257 Alkalis ..............................................................258 Restrainers (anti-foggants) ............................258 Miscellaneous additions to developers ........258 Superadditiviry (Synergesis) ..............................259 Development time .........................................259 Printing ................................................................259 Darkroom work ..............................................260 Development ..................................................260 Bibliography .......................................................260 14. Digital cameras and scanners ...................263 Digital still cameras ...........................................263 Digital still camera architecture ........................263 Imaging optics ....................................................265 Image sensor .......................................................267 Shutter systems ...................................................268 Dynamic range in digital cameras ....................269 Colour capture ....................................................269 Three-sensor cameras .....................................270 Sequential colour cameras ............................270 Colour filter array (CFA) cameras ................270 The Super CCD™ ...........................................271 The Foveon™ sensor ......................................272 Rendered versus unrendered camera processing ............................................................272 Exposure determination and auto-exposure .....................................................273 Autofocus control ...............................................273 Analogue processing ..........................................274 Digital processing ...............................................274 Colour demosaicing .......................................274 Setting white balance .....................................275 Digital zoom, resizing and cropping ...........276 Noise reduction ..............................................276 Sharpening ......................................................277 IX Contents Tone/colour rendering .......................................277 Camera types ......................................................277 Compact digital cameras ...............................278 Bridge digital cameras ....................................279 Digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras ............................................................279 Digital cameras and camera backs for medium and large format .......................280 Specialist digital cameras ...............................280 Image scanners ...................................................280 Types of scanners ...............................................282 Drum scanners ................................................282 Flatbed scanners .............................................282 Film scanners ..................................................283 Flextight scanners ...........................................284 Multi-spectral scanners ..................................284 Scanner characteristics .......................................284 Sampling and resolution ...............................284 Dynamic range ...............................................285 Bit depth ..........................................................286 Scanning speed ...............................................286 Image transfer .................................................286 Scanner drivers ...............................................286 Bibliography .......................................................287 15. Displays ......................................................289 Introduction ........................................................289 Image display ......................................................289 Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays .....................289 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) .........................293 Other display technologies ...............................296 Plasma display panels (PDPs) ......................296 Organic light-emitting displays (OLEDs)....296 Flexible displays .............................................297 Characteristics of displays .................................297 Refresh rate and response time ....................297 Resolution .......................................................298 Luminance ......................................................299 Contrast ratio ..................................................299 Viewing angle .................................................299 Colour .............................................................300 Display artefacts .............................................301 Effect of viewing conditions .............................302 Bibliography .......................................................302 16. Digital printing and materials ..................303 Introduction ........................................................303 Printing technologies .........................................303 InkJet printers .................................................303 Electrophotographic printers ........................305 Thermography ................................................307 Pictrography ....................................................308 Printing media and their properties ................308 Paper for inkjet printing ................................309 Inks for inkjet printing ..................................309 Toner materials ...............................................310 Colour, resolution and output .........................310 Half-toning and dithering .............................310 Resolution .......................................................311 Printing press ......................................................312 Relief printing .................................................313 Pianographic printing (or lithography) .......313 Recess printing ................................................313 Through printing ............................................313 Bibliography .......................................................314 17. Digital image file formats .........................315 Introduction ........................................................315 Raster and vector graphics .............................315 Bit-depth support and colour encoding ......316 Compression methods ..................................316 Standardization of the format ......................316 Metadata and Exif ..........................................317 Colour management ......................................317 Additional features .........................................317 Tagged image file format (TIFF) .......................317 TIFF /ЕР ............................................................ 318 TIFF/IT .............................................................319 Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) ......319 Joint Photographic Experts Group 2000 (JPEG 2000)........................................................320 RAW .....................................................................321 Digital negative (DNG) .....................................322 Graphics interchange format (GIF) ..................323 Portable network graphics (PNG) ....................324 Photoshop document (PSD) ............................325 Photo CD (PCD) ................................................326 Postscript (PS) and encapsulated postscript (EPS) ..................................................326 EPS ...................................................................327 Portable document format (PDF) ....................327 Bibliography .......................................................327 18. Image storage and archiving ....................329 Introduction ........................................................329 Life expectancy of traditional photographic media ...........................................329 Processing conditions ....................................331 Dark fading .....................................................331 Light fading .....................................................333 Storage conditions .........................................334 Atmospheric gases ..........................................336 Toning .............................................................336 Life expectancy of digital prints ........................336 Printing technologies and media .................337 Permanence factors and test for digital prints ................................................................338 Digital image storage and longevity ................339 Magnetic storage .............................................340 Optical disc storage ........................................340 Contents Other digital image archiving issues ............342 Bibliography .......................................................343 19. Introduction to image quality and system performance ...............................................345 Introduction ........................................................345 Subjective and objective image quality ...........345 Image quality assessment ..............................346 Basic image quality attributes (or dimensions) .............................................346 The image quality circle ................................348 Further image quality attributes ...................349 Digital image artefacts .......................................350 Distortion, fidelity and quality .........................351 Image distortion .............................................351 Image fidelity ..................................................351 Image quality ..................................................352 The use of a reference image ........................353 Test charts and test scenes .................................353 Test charts ........................................................353 Test scenes .......................................................354 Image psychophysics .........................................354 Psychometric scales ........................................355 The psychometric function ...........................355 Scaling methods .............................................356 Scene dependency in image quality .................357 Choice of test scenes ......................................360 Image quality metrics and models ...................361 Bibliography .......................................................363 20. Speed and sensitivity .................................365 Sensitivity of imaging systems ..........................365 Spectral sensitivity of digital cameras ..........366 Measurement of the spectral sensitivity of digital cameras ...........................................366 Determination of the colour sensitivity of an unknown photographic emulsion .........................................................367 Wedge spectrograms ......................................367 Uses of wedge spectrograms .........................368 Speed of imaging systems .................................368 Methods of expressing speed ........................368 Threshold systems ..........................................369 Fixed density ...................................................369 Inertia ..............................................................369 Minimum useful gradient .............................369 Fractional gradient .........................................370 Speed systems and standards ........................370 ISO speed ratings for colour silver-based materials ..............................................................372 Colour negative film ......................................372 Colour reversal film .......................................372 Speed of digital systems ....................................373 Speed based on saturation (Ssat) ..................373 Speed based on noise (Snoise) .......................374 Standard output sensitivity (SOS) ...............374 Recommended exposure index (REI) ..........374 Digital camera ISO settings ...........................374 Typical sensitivities of film and CCD devices and speed ratings in practice ...............374 Bibliography .......................................................375 21. Tone reproduction .....................................377 Theory of tone reproduction ............................377 Transfer functions and gamma .....................377 Overall transfer function and overall gamma .............................................................378 Subjective tone reproduction, optimum gamma and viewing conditions .......................................................378 Quadrant diagram ..........................................379 Tone reproduction of imaging devices and image encoding systems ............................380 CRT display transfer function .......................380 Liquid crystal display (LCD) transfer function ...........................................................382 Measuring display transfer functions ...........382 Transfer functions of digital acquisition devices .............................................................383 Measuring acquisition device transfer functions .........................................................384 Image encoding: sRGB, Adobe RGB and JPEG transfer functions ..........................384 Transfer functions of printers .......................386 Other measures related to tone and contrast ................................................................386 Dynamic range and contrast ratio ................386 Contrast in uniform areas, test targets and images ..........................................387 Non-linear quantization, bit-depth requirements and gamma correction ...............388 Bibliography .......................................................391 22. Photographic colour reproduction ..........393 Introduction ........................................................393 Complementary pairs of colours ..................393 Colour photographic processes ........................393 Additive colour photography .......................394 Subtractive processes ......................................395 Integral tripacks ..............................................395 Formation of subtractive image dyes ...........396 Colour sensitometiy ..........................................396 Negative—positive colour ..............................396 Reversal colour ...............................................399 Colour photographic materials ........................400 Location of colour formers ...........................401 Colour processing ..............................................401 Reversal process ..............................................402 XI Contents Negative—positive process ............................403 Prints from transparencies ............................405 Enhancement of colour reproduction .............407 Colorimetry of photographic images ..............408 Bibliography .......................................................409 23. Digital colour reproduction .....................411 Introduction ........................................................411 Colour space and colour encoding ..................412 Classification of colour spaces ..........................412 RGB (red, green, blue) ...................................413 CMY(K) (cyan, magenta, yellow, black) ...............................................................413 HSL (hue, saturation, lightness) - and similar ..............................................................413 YCC (luminance, chrominance 1, chrominance 2) — and similar .....................413 CIE colour spaces ...........................................413 Colorimetric colour spaces ...........................414 Colour appearance spaces .............................414 Device dependent colour spaces ..................414 Image state ..........................................................414 Sensor colour encoding .................................414 Scene-referred colour encoding ....................414 Output-referred colour encoding .................415 Original-referred colour encoding ................415 Standard colour space and colour space encodings ............................................................416 sRGB (standard RGB) and sRGB-related colour space encodings ..........416 sYCC and sYCC-related .................................418 ROMM RGB and RIMM RGB .......................419 Adobe RGB 1998...........................................419 Device colour characterization .........................419 Physical models ..............................................420 Numerical models ..........................................422 Regression .......................................................423 Look-up tables with interpolation ...............424 Evaluation of the characterization model ..............................................................425 Characterization of displays .............................426 Characterization of digital input devices ........428 Gamut mapping .................................................429 Gamut mapping aims ....................................430 Gamut mapping techniques .........................430 Bibliography .......................................................432 24. Noise, sharpness, resolution and information ................................................433 Introduction ........................................................433 Image noise .........................................................433 Causes of noise in an image .........................433 Photographic noise ............................................434 Graininess .......................................................434 Factors affecting the graininess of prints ...........................................................436 Granularity ......................................................436 Factors affecting negative granularity ...........436 Variation of granularity with density ...............437 Quantifying image noise ...................................437 Variance ...........................................................438 Estimating σ2 ..................................................438 Selwyn s law ....................................................438 The autocorrelation function ........................438 The noise power spectrum ............................438 Relationships between noise measures .......439 Practical considerations for the autocorrelation function and the noise power spectrum ..............................................440 Using the autocorrelation function ..............440 Direct Fourier transformation of noise samples ............................................................440 Signal-to-noise ratio .......................................441 Electronic system noise .....................................442 Resolution, sharpness and MTF .......................443 Resolving power of photographic systems ............................................................443 Measuring modulation transfer functions .........................................................445 Wave recording — sine-wave method ..........446 Wave recording — square-wave methods ...........................................................446 Edge input method ........................................446 Slanted edge method .....................................447 MTF correction ...............................................449 Resolving power and MTF for optical systems ............................................................449 Sharpness, MTF and image quality ..............450 Detective quantum efficiency (DQE) ..............451 General considerations ..................................451 DQE for the photographic process ..............453 DQE for a CCD or CMOS imaging array .................................................................453 DQE and signal-to-noise ratio .....................454 Information theory ............................................454 Information capacity of images ....................455 Bibliography .......................................................456 25. Digital image workflow ............................457 Imaging chains and image workflow ...............457 Principles guiding effective workflow ..............458 Workflow approach ...........................................459 Resolution and the digital imaging chain ....................................................................459 Interpolation ...................................................460 Interpolation methods and associated artefacts ............................................................461 Interpolation and image workflow ..............462 XII Contents Calculating required resolution for image output ..................................................462 Bit depth: 8-bit versus 16-bit imaging .............463 Colour management ..........................................464 Colour workflow ............................................465 File formats .........................................................466 Image acquisition ...........................................466 RAW capture and workflow ..........................467 Image editing ..................................................469 Image output ..................................................469 Image archiving ..............................................470 Image optimization workflow ..........................470 Workflow examples ............................................471 1. Commercial photography .........................471 2. Forensic imaging ........................................472 3. Medical imaging ........................................472 Acknowledgements ............................................473 Bibliography .......................................................473 26. Colour management systems ...................475 Introduction ........................................................475 Colour management tasks ................................475 Closed-loop versus open-loop colour management .......................................................476 The International Color Consortium (ICC) ....................................................................477 ICC colour management architecture ..............478 The profile connection space (PCS) .................479 Rendering intents ...............................................479 The ICC perceptual intent reference medium and reference viewing conditions .......................................................481 ICC profiles .........................................................481 Using profiles ......................................................483 Profile processing models .................................484 Profile structure ..................................................486 Structure of device profiles ............................487 Structure of colour space conversion profiles .............................................................489 Creating custom device profiles .......................490 Display profiles ...............................................490 Input profiles ..................................................491 Scanner profiling ............................................492 Digital camera profiling ................................492 Using camera profiles ....................................492 Output profiles ...............................................493 Colour management workflow ........................495 Colour rendering options .............................496 Early-binding versus late-binding workflow .........................................................496 RGB and CMYK workflows ...........................496 Using an intermediate colour space ............497 Proofing and soft-proofing images ..............498 Bibliography .......................................................499 27. Spatial image processing ...........................501 Introduction ........................................................501 Background .........................................................501 Structure of the digital image .......................501 Implementation of spatial domain processes ..........................................................502 Linear systems theory ....................................503 Discrete convolution ..........................................503 Point processing operations: intensity transformations ..................................................503 Brightness and contrast changes using linear transformation functions ...................503 Piecewise linear functions .............................504 Image thresholding and quantization .........504 Power-law transformations: gamma correction ........................................................505 Point processing: multiple image operations ...........................................................507 Enhancement using arithmetic operations .......................................................507 Enhancement using logic operations ...........507 Point processing: statistical operations ............507 The image histogram .....................................507 Probability density function and probability distribution function .................508 Histogram slide and stretch ..........................510 Histogram equalization .................................510 Point processing: geometric transformations ..................................................512 Neighbourhood processing: spatial filtering techniques .............................................512 Linear filtering ....................................................512 Properties of linear filters ..............................513 Types of linear filters and their applications .........................................................514 Smoothing spatial filters ...............................514 Edge detection and sharpening spatial filters ................................................................515 Non-linear spatial filtering ................................518 Median filters ..................................................518 Minimum and maximum filters ...................520 Bibliography .......................................................520 28. Digital image processing in the frequency domain .....................................521 Introduction ........................................................521 Fourier series and transform revisited .............522 Fast Fourier transform (FFT) .............................523 Imaging equation revisited ...............................523 Linear spatial filtering (convolution) ..............523 Frequency-domain filtering ...............................524 Low-pass filtering ...........................................526 High-pass filtering ..........................................526 XIII Contents High-boost filter .............................................527 Band-pass and band-Stop filters .......................527 Image restoration ...............................................529 Inverse filtering ...............................................529 Optimal or Wiener filtering ..........................531 Maximum entropy reconstruction ...............531 Interactive restoration ....................................532 Extended depth of field (EDOF) ..................532 Wavelet transform ..............................................532 Discrete wavelet transform ............................533 Bibliography .......................................................534 29. Image compression ...................................535 Introduction ........................................................535 Uncompressed image file sizes .........................535 Image data and information .............................535 Basis of compression .........................................536 Types of redundancy ......................................537 Measuring compression rate .........................538 Scene dependency and compression ...........539 Information theory ............................................539 Entropy and image structure .........................540 Shannon s theorem ........................................541 Image compression models ..............................542 Lossless compression .........................................543 Lossless compression methods .....................543 Reducing spatial redundancy ........................543 Reducing coding redundancy: variable-length coding ...................................545 Lossy compression .............................................546 Evaluating lossy compression ...........................547 Distortion metrics ..........................................547 Alternative assessment methods ...................548 Lossy compression methods .............................548 Quantization ...................................................549 Lossy compression standards ............................549 Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) standard ..............................................549 JPEG 2000 standard .......................................551 Bibliography .......................................................552 Appendix A ..........................................................553 Appendix В ..........................................................555 Index .....................................................................557
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illustrated	Illustrated
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physical	XVIII, 566 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst. 25 cm
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spellingShingle	Allen, Elizabeth The manual of photography Digitale Fotografie (DE-588)4763160-0 gnd Fotografie (DE-588)4045895-7 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4763160-0 (DE-588)4045895-7
title	The manual of photography
title_auth	The manual of photography
title_exact_search	The manual of photography
title_full	The manual of photography ed. by Elizabeth Allen ; Sophie Triantaphillidou. [With contrib. by Geoffrey Attridge ...]
title_fullStr	The manual of photography ed. by Elizabeth Allen ; Sophie Triantaphillidou. [With contrib. by Geoffrey Attridge ...]
title_full_unstemmed	The manual of photography ed. by Elizabeth Allen ; Sophie Triantaphillidou. [With contrib. by Geoffrey Attridge ...]
title_short	The manual of photography
title_sort	the manual of photography
topic	Digitale Fotografie (DE-588)4763160-0 gnd Fotografie (DE-588)4045895-7 gnd
topic_facet	Digitale Fotografie Fotografie
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024460759&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT allenelizabeth themanualofphotography AT triantaphillidousophie themanualofphotography AT attridgegg themanualofphotography

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