The Physiology of the elephant:
Gespeichert in:
| Beteilige Person: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Englisch |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Washington
1936
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Carnegie Institution of Washington publication
474 |
| Schlagwörter: | |
| Links: | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014947163&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| Umfang: | VII, 302 S. |
Internformat
MARC
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The Physiology of the elephant |c Francis G[ano] Benedict |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1823947270725304320 |
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| adam_text |
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THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEPHANT
BY
FRANCIS G BENEDICT
Director, Nutrition Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington
PUBLISHED BY CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Washington, 1936
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction 1
Earlier observations on the elephant 4
Plan of research 13
Elephants studied 15
Captive versus wild animals 15
Search for a suitable elephant for the gaseous metabolism study , 18
The elephant Jap 19
Life history of the elephant Jap 20
Other elephants studied 21
Physical characteristics of elephants studied 21
Chronology of the research 24
Techniques employed 25
Techniques other than the respiration chamber 25
Apparatus for studying the respiratory exchange 27
The respiration chamber proper 30
Ventilation system 36
Ingoing air 36
Removal of air from chamber 38
Measurement of volume of air passing through the system 40
Meter 40
Rotamesser 43
Aliquotinc, of ventilating air current 44
Residual samples 49
Analysis of chamber air samples for carbon dioxide, oxygen, methane, and
water vapor 49
Gas-analysis apparatus 49
Chemical hygrometer 50
Gas-analysis laboratory 51
Sampling pumps 51
Measurement of temperature of the respiration chamber 52
Measurement of temperature of ventilating air current 52
Control tests of respiration apparatus 53
Test for tightness 53
Carbon-dioxide control test 54
Trunk-breathing appliance 56
Discussion of results 61
Age and length of life of the elephant 62
Habits 64
Muscular activity 64
Body position 68
Sleep 68
Sleep study with the elephant Jap 68
Sleep studies with the Ringling and Barnes herds 71
Observations on the Ringling herd in Florida 72
Business or professional activities of the elephant Jap 74
Temperament 74
Excitability and tendency to stampede 75
Breeding habits 77
Parturition of the elephant 81
Composition of elephant's milk 83
Relationship of weight of baby to weight of mother 84
Breeding of elephants in captivity 86
Hearing 87
Physical appearance of the elephant Jap i 88
Resistance to cold 88
iii
CONTENTS
PAGE
Discussion of results—Continued
Physical characteristics 91
Height 93
Elephants' heights recorded in the literature 93
Methods of measuring height employed in this research 95
Height of the elephant Jap 96
Comparison of the heights of elephants as measured by three methods 97
Girths and lengths 102
Body weight 103
Intestinal contents or ballast 106
Autopsies of elephants : 108
Autopsy of the elephant Bolivar, by Dr Herbert Fox 109
Body composition 113
Respiration rate 114
Respiration rate of the elephant Jap 115
Respiration rates as studied on two herds of elephants 117
Barnes herd 118
Study of Ringling herd in Florida 118
Ventilation of lungs 120
Heart rate 122
Observations made in 1935 on the heart rate of the elephant 123
Heart rate of elephant No 4 at Nashua, New Hampshire 125
Heart rate of elephant No 3 at Franklin Park, Boston 127
Heart rate of the elephant Jap at Campgaw, New Jersey 128
Heart rates of the thirty-four elephants in the Ringling herd in Florida 129
Heart rate in the standing position 129
Heart rate in the lying position 132
Need of a simple method for recording the elephant's heart rate 134
Weight of heart in relation to total body weight 135
Body temperature 136
Rectal temperature 136
Feces temperature 138
Urine temperature - 139
Comparison of feces and urine temperatures • 146
Conclusions, regarding feces and urine temperatures 149
A practical measure of elephant body temperature 149
Temperature of expired air 150
Skin temperature 153
Observations on,the elephant Jap 153
Observations on four Ringling elephants 156
Ear temperatures 158
Food 159
The elephant's teeth and mastication 167
Drinking water 173
Feces 176
Chemical composition of feces 185
Rate of food passage through intestines 189
Apparent digestibility of hay by the elephant Jap 192
Urine 197
Collection and sampling of urine 198
Frequency of urination 200
Physical properties 201
Microscopy 201
Volume of discharge 202
Total volume of urine excreted per 24 hours 203
iv
CONTENTS
PAGE
Discussion of results—Continued
Urine—Continued
Results of chemical analyses 204
Specific gravity 204
Total solids 209
Ratio of total solids to specific gravity ' 211
Constituents of total solids ' 212
Ash 213
Organic matter : 213
Nitrogen 214
Relationship between nitrogen per c c and specific gravity of urine 214
Twenty-four hour excretion of nitrogen 216
Partition of nitrogen excretion 220
Sodium chloride 224
Carbon and energy 225
Nitrogen balance 228
Sodium-chloride balance 229
Water balance , 231
Gaseous metabolism 231
Conditions under which measurements were made 232
Trunk-breathing experiments 235
Arguments for and against mouth breathing by the elephant 235
Brody's trunk-breathing experiments 239
Trunk-breathing experiments on the elephant Jap 241
Procedure of experiments 241
Analysis of results 242
Apparent respiratory quotient in trunk-breathing experiments 243
Methane in expired air 244
Heat production calculated from trunk-breathing experiments 247
Respiration chamber experiments 248
Procedure in respiration chamber experiments ' 249
Typical calculation of a respiration chamber experiment 252
Analysis of measurements of the products of,respiration 252
Methane production 253
Role played by fermentative action in metabolism studies 259
Respiratory quotients as affected by corrections for protein,
methane, and the carbon dioxide of fermentation 261
Heat production 263
Total heat production 267
' Influence of environmental temperature 269
Normality of the elephant Jap 269
Energy balance 271
Metabolizable energy 272
Water vaporized and heat lost through the path of water vapor 273
Total water vapor from lungs and skin 275
Percentage of water vapor lost from skin alone 275
Heat lost in vaporization of water 277
Basal metabolism 277
Total basal heat production 281
Comparison of the basal metabolism of the elephant with the basal
measurements on other animals 282
Basal heat production per kilogram of body weight 282
Basal heat production per square meter of body surface 283
Speculations regarding basal metabolism of elephant and of whale 286
Salient facts regarding the physiology of the elephant 290
Bibliography 293
Bibliography on the physiology of the elephant 293
Supplementary bibliography dealing with the elephant 295
Author index 301
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES FACING
PAGE
1 Jap, the female Indian elephant used in the gaseous metabolism study 20
2A Elephant Jap inside the barn, and respiration chamber in the rear 30
2B Floor plan of elephant barn 30
3A Interior of respiration chamber, showing wooden support for metal roof and
interior metal sides, with cement painted over the lapped edges and nail holes 34
3B Photograph showing general construct ion of respiration chamber and its location
• in corner of barn, with insert showing view of elephant Jap 34
4 Door closure 35
5 Blowers and blower box with cover removed 40
6 Arrangement for a carbon-dioxide control test of tightness and accuracy of func
tioning of the entire respiration apparatus 56
7 Trunk-breathing appliance 58
8 Characteristic position of trunk of elephant, while lying asleep 72
TEXT-FIGURES
PAGE
1 Side-view drawing of respiration chamber, showing its construction and elephant
in place 32
2 Diagram of ventilating, aliquoting, and metering systems of respiration chamber 37
3 The Fox bag for collection of an aliquot sample of air coming from an open-
circuit respiration chamber 45
4 Diagram of valve in trunk-breathing appliance 58
5 Schematic outline of trunk-breathing appliance with ventilating, metering and
aliquoting systems 59
6 Device for accurate measurement of elephant's height at shoulder 97
7 Heart rates of elephants while standing, referred to age 132
8 Skin temperatures (°C ) on the right side of the female Indian elephant Jap 153
9 Skin temperatures (°C ) on the left side of the female Indian elephant Alice at the
New York Zoological Park 154
10 Skin temperatures (°C ) on the left and right sides of the male African elephant
'Kartoum, at the New York Zoological Park 155
11 Outline of elephant's body, showing location of skin temperature measurements
on four Ringling elephants 157
12 Relationship between specific gravity and nitrogen per c c of urine 215
13 Relationship between specific gravity and sodium chloride per c c of urine 225
vi
TABLES
PAGE
1 Heights of elephants born in captivity, subsequently measured at the Hagenbeek
Tierpark 17
2 Physical characteristics of elephants studied 22
3 Time spent by Jap lying down and presumably asleep nine consecutive nights 70
4 Data on weights of new-born elephants and length of life 85
5 Heights of the male African elephant Kartoum 94
6 Comparison of methods of measuring the height of the elephant 98
7 Linear measurements of the male African elephant Kartoum—Noback 103
8 Weights of dissected organs and body parts of elephant—Gilchrist (1851) 109
9 Weights of dissected organs and body parts of male African elephant Kartoum—
Noback 112
10 Respiration rates and ventilation of lungs of the elephants studied by Brody 115
11 Respiration rates of two elephants (lying), calculated from the times for suc
cessive respirations 119
12 Respiration rates of Ringling elephants (lying) : 120
13 Heart rates of elephants (standing) at Sarasota 131
14 Heart rates of elephants (lying) at Sarasota 133
15 Temperature of feces 140
16 Weights and temperatures of the urine of the elephant Jap 143
17 Minimum, maximum, and average temperatures of the urine of the elephant Jap 144
18 Urine temperatures of Ringling elephants 145
19 Urine temperatures of Barnes elephants 146
20 Comparison of feces and urine temperatures 147
21 Skin temperatures of Ringling elephants at Sarasota, Florida 157
i 22 Food eaten by the elephant Jap, April 3 to 11, 1935 164
22A Motion study of elephants when eating hay 170
23 Amount and temperature of water drunk by the elephant Jap 175
24 Weights of each defecation and average weight per bolus of feces passed by the
elephant Jap 1 178
25 Frequency and weights of defecations—elephant Jap 181
26 Measurements of individual boluses of elephant feces 183
27 Chemical composition and energy value of water-free substance in feces 186
28 Elapsed time before pieces of rubber fed to elephant Jap appeared in feces 191
29 Apparent digestibility of constituents in hay eaten by the elephant Jap 195
30 Volume, specific gravity, and nitrogen in the urine of the elephant Jap 206
31 Specific gravity and nitrogen in urine—elephant herds 208
32 Solids in the urine of the elephant Jap 210
33 Solids in urine—Barnes herd 211
34 Estimated volumes of urine and urinary nitrogen excreted per 24 hours—elephant
Jap 218
35 Constituents in the urine of the elephant Jap 219
36 Creatinine, creatine, and creatinine-N in the urine of the elephant Jap 220
37 Sodium chloride and urea- plus ammonia-nitrogen in urines of Ringling elephants 221
38 Carbon and energy in elephant urines 226
39 Trunk-breathing experiments with elephant Jap 243
40 Typical calculation of oxygen consumption during a respiration chamber ex
periment 251
41 Gaseous exchange measurements on the elephant Jap in respiration chamber
experiments 254
42 Calculation of heat production from respiratory exchange measurements on
the elephant Jap 265
43 Water-vapor output and percentage of heat lost in vaporization of water by the
elephant Jap 274
vii |
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| spelling | Benedict, Francis Gano 1870-1957 Verfasser (DE-588)116119977 aut The Physiology of the elephant Francis G[ano] Benedict Washington 1936 VII, 302 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Carnegie Institution of Washington publication 474 Elephant cabt Physiology cabt Elephants Elephants anatomy & histology Metabolism Carnegie Institution of Washington publication 474 (DE-604)BV035415500 474 HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=014947163&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Benedict, Francis Gano 1870-1957 The Physiology of the elephant Carnegie Institution of Washington publication Elephant cabt Physiology cabt Elephants Elephants anatomy & histology Metabolism |
| title | The Physiology of the elephant |
| title_auth | The Physiology of the elephant |
| title_exact_search | The Physiology of the elephant |
| title_full | The Physiology of the elephant Francis G[ano] Benedict |
| title_fullStr | The Physiology of the elephant Francis G[ano] Benedict |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Physiology of the elephant Francis G[ano] Benedict |
| title_short | The Physiology of the elephant |
| title_sort | the physiology of the elephant |
| topic | Elephant cabt Physiology cabt Elephants Elephants anatomy & histology Metabolism |
| topic_facet | Elephant Physiology Elephants Elephants anatomy & histology Metabolism |
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