Verfügbarkeit: The legal process | Technische Universität München

The legal process: basic problems in the making and application of law

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Beteiligte Personen:	Hart, Henry M. 1904-1969 (VerfasserIn), Sacks, Albert M. (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	Westbury, NY Foundation Press 1994
Schlagwörter:	Recht Law > United States > Cases Prozessrecht USA
Links:	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010521968&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
Umfang:	CXXXIX, 1387 S. Ill.
ISBN:	1566622360

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245	1	0	\|a The legal process \|b basic problems in the making and application of law \|c by Henry M. Hart and Albert M. Sacks. Prepared for publ. from the 1958 tentative ed. by, and containing an introd. essay by, William N. Eskridge ...
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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface by Erwin N. Griswold ................................ vii Publication Editors’ Preface ................................... xi Table of Cases ............................................. xliii An Historical and Critical Introduction to The Legal Process, by William N. Eskridge, Jr. Philip P. Frickey......................................... li Preface to the 1958 “Tentative Edition”................... cxxxvii CHAPTER 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF LAW............................................... 1 Section 1· Two Examples of the Law in Operation.............. 1 Introductory Note on the Principle of Institutional Settlement................................................. 1 A. The Basic Conditions of Human Existence............. 1 B. The Recognition of a Community of Interest by Groups of Human Beings .............................. 2 C. The Institutionalization of Procedures for the Settlement of Questions of Group Concern.......... 3 D. The Principle Implicit in the Procedures ........... 4 E. The Interplay of Private and Official Procedures of Decision ............................... 6 F. The Two Introductory Problems ...................... 9 Problem No. 1. The Significance of an Institutional System: The Case of the Spoiled Cantaloupes....................... 10 Background Notes on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables........... 12 Part I. The Trade in Fresh Fruits and Vegetables....... 12 Part II. What Prior Settlements Said to Martinelli ..... 15 A. Martinelli’s Own Agreement ......................... 16 1. “U.S. Grade No. 1”................................ 16 2. “Rolling acceptance final”........................ 19 B. The Background of State Law......................... 22 1. The question of locating the applicable state law . 23 2. The question of the existence of a binding private settlement.............................. 27 3. The effect of the agreement, if it was valid, under the Uniform Sales Act ................. 28 C. What the Act of Congress Said to Martinelli...... 33 1. The crucial provisions............................ 33 2. The background of the statute..................... 35 a. The abortive voluntary plan of 1925 ........ 35 b. The Produce Agency Act of 1927 ............. 35 c. The legislative history of the 1930 Act..... 36 D. What Prior Settlements by the Secretary of Agriculture Said to Martinelli.................... 41 1. The regulations defining trade terms.............. 41 2. The administrative decisions on the effect of a wrongful rejection................................. 42 E. Trade Practice and Understanding ...................... 43 Part III. Martinelli’s Decision .............................. 45 Part IV. The Official Decisions............................ 46 A. The Problem in the Department of Agriculture .... 46 L. Gillarde Co. v. Joseph Martinelli Co., Inc. . . 47 B. The Problem in the United States District Court ... 50 Joseph Martinelli Co. v. L. Gillarde Co........ 50 C. The Problem in the United States Court of Appeals . 53 L. Gillarde Co. v. Joseph Martinelli Co., Inc. . . 53 L. Gillarde Co. v. Joseph Martinelli Co., Inc. . . 57 D. The Problem in the Supreme Court of the United States.................................... 58 Part V. Some Notes and Queries ............................ 60 A. The Problem Through Martinelli’s Eyes............... 60 B. The Problem Through the Secretary’s Eyes............. 60 C. The Problem Through the Courts’ Eyes................. 63 D. Some Cognate Problems in the Courts................. 64 E. The Problem Through the Eyes of Congress............. 66 F. The Problem from an Olympian Point of View .... 67 Problem No. 2. An Introduction to the Differences Between Enacted and Decisional Law: The Case of the Spoiled Heir.................................................. 68 Background Notes on the Acquisition of Property by Homicide in Ohio .......................................... 71 Part I. The Ohio Legislature’s Attitude Toward Homicide ........................................... 72 Part II. The Filmore Problem ................................. 73 A. The Filmore Opinion Filmore v. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company .................................. 73 B. Some Notes and Queries on the Filmore Problem . . 75 Part III. The Problem Under the Statute of Descent and Distribution........................................... 76 A. The Statute ........................................... 76 B. The Decision in Deem v. Millikin.................... 77 Deem v. Millikin........................................ 77 Riggs v. Palmer ........................................ 80 C. The Later Ohio Decisions .............................. 85 D. The Situation in Other States.......................... 87 E. Some Notes and Queries on the Felonious Heir .... 88 Part IV. The Insurance Problem Revisited and Further Explored........................................... 94 A. Should the Insurance Company Keep the Proceeds? . 94 B. May the Court Rewrite the Beneficiary Clause? .... 94 C. In Rewriting the Clause, Should the Court Permit Deem To Undercut Filmore?............................ 95 D. Can Deem and Filmore Stand Together? .................. 96 Part V. The Problem Under the Will........................ 97 A. The Appropriateness of the Sanction of Nullity .... 97 B. The Problem if the Will Were Valid ................. 98 Part VI. An Epilogue on the 1932 Statute.................. 98 Section 2. Introductory Text Notes on the Nature and Function of Law ......................................... 102 Note on the Nature of Institutional Decisions................ 102 A. The Ultimate Objectives of the Decisions.............. 102 B. The Question of the Nature of Knowledge About Institutional Decisions ............................... 107 C. A Preliminary View....................................... 110 D. A Retrospective Query ................................... 113 Note on the Nature and Significance of General Directive Arrangements................................................. 113 Part I. Some Points of Basic Analysis..................... 113 A. The Elements of General Directive Arrangements . . 113 B. Law and Language ...................................... 114 C. The Kinds of People to Whom Directions Are Addressed: Herein of Privately Addressed and Officially Addressed Arrangements................ 118 D. The Formulation, Elaboration, and Application of General Directions................................... 119 E. The Technique of Self-Applying Regulation.......... 120 F. Primary Law and Remedial Law ......................... 122 G. Enacted Law and Decisional Law........................ 125 H. The Kinds of Directions Which Are Addressed to Private Persons: Herein of Primary Duties, Liberties, and Powers, and of Remedial Rights of Action..................................... 127 1. Primary private duties ........................... 130 2. Primary private liberties......................... 132 3. Primary private powers............................ 133 4. The question of the primary positions of non-actors........................................ 134 5. Remedial legal positions ........................ 137 I. The Degrees of Specificity of Directions: Herein of Rules and Standards and of Principles and Policies ........................ 138 1. Rules and standards.............................. 139 2. Principles and policies ........................ 141 Part II. The Processes of Official Judgment Involved in the Administration of General Directive Arrangements .... 143 A. The Process of Reasoned Elaboration of Purportedly Determinate Directions................... 145 B. The Reasoned Elaboration of Avowedly Indeterminate Directions............................. 150 C. Powers of Continuing Discretion........................ 152 Preliminary Note on the Major Lawmaking Institutions in the American System and the Dynamics of Their Interrelationships ............................................. 158 Part L Some General Considerations........................ 159 Part II. The Interrelationships of the Major Lawmaking Institutions in a Unitary System .................... 161 A. The Private Lawmakers .............................. 161 B. The Role of the Courts in the Development of the Underlying Decisional Law......................... 163 C. The Legislature..................................... 164 D. Administrative Agencies......................... . 165 E. The Role of the Courts in the Interpretation and Enforcement of the Constitution and of Statutes and Administrative Determinations ................ 166 Part III. Local Institutions ............................. 167 Part IV. The Complications of a Federal System.......... 168 A. The Domain of Exclusive State Legislative Competence . ..................................... 168 1. Federal control of state official action ...... 168 2. The jurisdiction of the federal courts in matters of state law........................... 169 B. The Domain of Concurrent State and Federal Legislative Competence............................ . 171 C. The Domain of Exclusive Federal Competence........ 172 Note on the Lawyer’s Function and the Relation of Law to the Other Social Sciences ............................. 174 A. Introductory........................................... 174 B. Arrangement-Framing ................................... 175 C. Arrangement-Applying .................................. 178 Bibliographical Note on Contemporary and Traditional Theories of Law .......................................... 180 CHAPTER 2. THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ORDERING AND SOME OF ITS PROBLEMS ...................................... 183 Prefatory Note ............................................ 183 Section 1. Primary Activity................................... 186 Cavers, Legal Education and Lawyer-Made Law ............... 186 Problem No. 3. The Private Decisionmakers in the Saddle with the Courts To Supplement and Support Them: The Case of the Jittery Landlady........................ 188 Memorandum October 15, 1956 ...................................... 190 Memorandum October 18, 1956 ...................................... 192 A Postscript on the Percentage Lease Problem with a Notation of the Problems of Lawmaking Generally . . 206 A. The Lawyer as Counsel to the Situation ........... 206 B. The Line Between Law and Non-Law at the Grass Roots ...................................... 206 C. The Judicial Function in the Interpretation of Private Arrangements.............................. 207 D. The Possibilities of Public Rent Control............ 207 E. A Notation on the Problems of Lawmaking Generally............................... 208 Problem No. 4. The Private Decisionmakers with Officials Looking over Their Shoulders: Railroad Liability for Lost or Damaged Freight .............................. 209 Background Notes on the Liability of Common Carriers for Lost or Damaged Goods............................... 210 Part I. The Situation Confronting Massachusetts Railroads as of About 1850 ...................................... 210 A. Liability in the Absence of Special Agreement..... 210 B. The Carrier’s Power To Vary Its Liability by Special Agreement ........................................ 213 C. The Significance of Insurance ...................... 215 Part II. The Role of the Courts in Setting Limits upon Private Lawmaking...................................... 218 A. The Lockwood Decision............................... 218 Railroad Company v. Lockwood ....................... 218 B. Notes on Judicial Regulation of Private Lawmaking , 228 Part III. The Problem in the State Legislature.......... 233 Part IV. The Problem as Presented to the Congress of the United States Around the Turn of the Century......... 235 A. The Impetus for Federal Legislation Concerning Railroads ........................................ 235 B. The Impetus for Federal Legislation Concerning Railroad Liability................................ 236 Part V. Some Notes and Queries ........................... 239 Problem No. 5. A Problem of Choice in the Assignment of Powers: Airline Liability for Lost or Damaged Baggage .............................. 240 Background Notes on Airline Liability for Lost or Damaged Baggage........................................... 241 Part I. The Situation with Respect to Railroad Baggage . . 241 Part II. What Congress Did About Airline Baggage ....... 246 Excerpts from the Civil Aeronautics Act, as amended . . 246 Part III. What the Civil Aeronautics Board Did About Baggage Apart from Reviewing Tariffs ............ 247 Excerpts from 14 C.F.R. Part 221 ...................... 247 Part IV. What the Airlines Did About Baggage ........... 250 A. Tariff Provisions................................... 250 Excerpts from Local and Joint Passenger Rules Tariff No. PR-1 C.A.B. No. 4, A.T.B. No. 4...... 250 Excerpts from Local and Joint Passenger Rules Tariff No. PR-3, as amended .................... 251 B. Ticket Provisions........... ..................... 254 Excerpts from a Typical Airline Passenger Ticket . . 254 Part V. What the Courts Did............................. 255 A. The Lichten Case ................................... 255 Lichten v. Eastern Airlines, Inc.................... 255 B. Other Airline Cases................................ 258 Part VI. Some Notes and Queries........................... 261 A. The Adequacy of Existing Arrangements ............. 261 1* The responsibility of Congress .................. 262 2. The responsibility of the airlines and their counsel..................................... 263 3. The responsibility of the Civil Aeronautics Board . 264 4. The responsibility of the courts................... 264 B. The Possibility of a Better Statutory Arrangement . . 265 Problem No. 6. A Problem in Private Government: The Case of the Absent Veterans....................................... 265 Background Notes on Private Ordering in Labor Relations . . 267 Part I. The Problem Apart from the Selective Service Requirement............................................... 267 A. Collective Bargaining as a Mode of Settlement .... 267 B. The Martin Decision ................................ 269 Matter of Glenn L. Martin Co. ................... 269 C. The Significance of Governmental Regulation of Collective Bargaining............................ 273 D. The Special Problem of Fair Representation............ 276 E. A Few Queries......................................... 276 Part II. The Selective Service Requirement .................. 277 A. A Few More Queries ................................... 277 B. The Campbell Decision................................. 277 Aeronautical Industrial District Lodge 727 v. Campbell ........................................ 277 Note on Private Lawmaking In Invitum.......................... 282 Note on the Units of Decisionmaking in Private Ordering .................................................... 283 Section 2. Remedial Activity..................................... 286 Prefatory Note: The Great Pyramid of Legal Order............. 286 Problem No. 7. Private Release: The Case of the Non-Litigious Employees...................................... 287 Background Notes on Private Power To Settle Disputes Under the Fair Labor Standards Act........................ 290 Part I. Relevant Statutory Provisions as of 1941 ......... 290 Excerpts from the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 52 Stat. 1060 ........................ 290 Part II. Judicial Resolution of the Problem............... 292 A. The O’Neil-Gangi Doctrine ............................ 292 D.A. Schulte, Inc. y. Gangi ........................ 292 B. Some Notes and Queries............................. 297 Part III. Subsequent Legislative Action ..................... 301 A. The Portal-to-Portal Act of 1947 .................. 301 B. The 1949 Amendment ................................... 302 C. Some Notes and Queries................................ 303 Problem No. 8. Private Arbitration: The Case of the Litigious Investor ......................................... 304 A. Mrs. Phluster’s Trouble ......................... 304 B. Mr. Phluster’s Trouble............................... 305 C. The Problem.......................................... 306 Background Notes on Commercial and Labor Arbitration .... 306 Part I. The Merits of the Two Phluster Claims............. 306 A. Mrs. Phluster’s Claim................................ 306 B. Mr. Phluster’s Claim ................................ 307 Part II. The Elements of Voluntary Arbitration ........... 309 A. Official Arrangements About Arbitration: In General ........................................ 309 B. Private Ordering of the Arbitration Process ......... 310 C. Elements of an Arbitration Proceeding................ 311 Part III. The Advantages of Voluntary Arbitration......... 314 A. Speed and Inexpensiveness .......................... 314 B. Friendliness and the Preservation of Good Will .... 315 C. Technical Expertness of the Arbitrator............... 316 D. The Appeal of Privacy ............................... 317 E. Informality and Flexibility of Procedure............. 317 F. Arbitration as an Ad Hoc Process in Disregard of Precedent ........................... 318 G. Finality of Decision at an Early Stage............... 321 Part IV. The Impact of Compulsion on a Voluntary Process ...................................... 321 A. The Pre-Statutory Law................................ 321 B. Modern Arbitration Statutes ......................... 323 Part V. The Collision Between the United States Arbitration Act and the Securities Act .............................. 324 Wilko v. Swan ........................................... 324 Part VI. A Word on Labor Arbitration...................... 330 Problem No. 9. Settlement of Internal Disputes by Private Groups: The Case of the Cantankerous Colonel.............. 331 Dawkins v. Antrobus ..................................... 331 Background Notes on Internal Settlement by Associations of Internal Disputes .......................................... 337 CHAPTER 3. THE COURTS AS PLACES OF INITIAL RESORT FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS WHICH FAIL OF PRIVATE SOLUTION................................. 341 Prefatory Note ................................................ 341 Section L The Relation Between Law and Fact..................... 344 Note on the Identification of Fact............................. 344 Problem No. 10. Law, Fact, and Discretion in the Application of Law.......................................... 345 Commonwealth v. Wright .................................. 346 Commonwealth v. Sullivan ................................ 347 Background Notes on the Distinction Between Law and Fact............................................... 349 A. The Utility of Efforts To Distinguish “Law” and “Fact”................................................ 349 B. The Three-Fold Nature of the Decisional Process...... 350 C. The Significance of the Suggested Analysis............... 351 1. In general ............................................ 351 2. Judge and jury....................................... 352 3. The judge without a jury ............................ 356 4. Trial court and reviewing court . . ................. 358 5. The relation between declaring law and identifying facts................................... 359 D. Adjudicative and Legislative Facts ...................... 360 Section 2. The Reason-For-Being of Judicially Declared Law ................................................. 362 Problem No. 11. Decision Without Closely Relevant Precedent: The Case of the Burnt Bundles .................. 362 Norway Plains Co. v. Boston Maine R.R................. 362 Background Notes on the Termination of the Extraordinary Liability of a Common Carrier by Railroad.................. 372 Part I. The Norway Plains Case and the Law-Declaring Function of the Court..................................... 372 A. The Question of Common Carrier Status............... 372 1. The preliminary questions of the obligation to decide and the obligation to generalize the grounds of decision .......................... 372 a. The possibility of no-law ....................... 372 b. The possibility of no generalized ground of decision....................................... 373 c. A proposed conclusion............................ 373 2. The possibility of exercising a legislative discretion about the merits of the rule of common carrier liability.......................... 374 3. The result required by a reasoned elaboration of existing arrangements............................. 375 B. The Question of Termination of Carrier Liability ... 375 1. The wagon rule...................................... 375 2. The unloading rule.................................. 376 Part II. The Subsequent Development of State Law........... 377 A. The Aftermath in the State Courts................... 377 B. An Effort at Correction by a State Legislature .... 378 Part III. Final Resolution of the Problem by a Federal Administrative Agency ....................... 381 A. The Interstate Commerce Commission’s Action .... 381 B. Some Notes and Queries.............................. 382 Problem No. 12. The Need for the Reasoned Elaboration of Precedent: The Case of the Faithless Fiduciary.......... 383 Berenson v. Nirenstein ................................... 383 Background Notes on the Berenson Problem...................... 386 A. The Spritz Line of Decisions ....................... 386 B. The Salter Line of Decisions ...................... 387 C. The Question Whether the Decisions Were in Conflict ................................ 393 D. The Question of How To Resolve the Conflict........ 396 E. The Question of Judicial Craftsmanship............. 397 Fuller, The Forms and Limits of Adjudication.......... 397 Section 3. The Starting Points of Judicial Reasoning ..................... . . ....................... 403 Subsection A. The Bearing of Custom......................... 403 Problem No. 13. Customary Standards of Conduct as a Measure of Tort Duties: The Case of the Unseaworthy Tugs....................................... 403 The T.J. Hooper ........................................ 404 Background Notes on the Hooper Problem ..................... 407 A. The Requirement of Seaworthiness........................ 407 B. The Nature of the Requirement of Seaworthiness .... 409 C. The State of the Art and the Practice of the Industry...................................... 409 D. The Question of Prevailing Practice as Decisive of Minimum Obligation................................ 410 E. The Question of Prevailing Practice as Decisive of Maximum Obligation ............................... 412 F. The Bearing of the Act of Congress ................... 413 Problem No. 14. Custom in the Interpretation of Contracts: The Case of the Bankers Accustomed To Doing What They Pleased ............................................. 415 Dixon, Irmaos CIA. Ltda. u. Chase National Bank . . 415 Background Notes on the Dixon, Irmaos Problem............... 419 A. A Criticism ............................................ 419 B. A Defense .............................................. 421 C. Some Notes and Queries.................................. 421 Note on Custom as a Source of Judicially Declared Law .... 423 A. The Filling-In Function of Custom .................... 423 B. Custom as a Premise of Judicial Reasoning ............ 425 C. Custom as a Basis of Local, Territorial Exception from Established General Law......................... 426 D. The Common Law as Customary Law......................... 427 E. Custom as Distinguished from General Community Understanding and Fair Expectation................... 429 1. The historical school of jurisprudence .............. 429 2. Excerpts from Carter................................. 430 Subsection B. The Materials of Judicial Reasoning when Custom Fails ......................................... 435 Problem No. 15. The Search for Policy: Primary Policy..................................................... 435 Roberson v. Rochester Folding Box Co...................... 435 Background Notes on Judicial Enforcement of Primary Obligations Not Previously Recognized as Enforceable Legal Obligations ........................... 450 Part I. The Right To Privacy............................. 450 A. The Basis for a Judicial Determination of the Merits...................................... 450 1. The Warren-Brandeis article........................ 450 2. Some further notes and queries ................. 452 3. The course of decisions in other states......... 453 B. The Legislature as a Preferable Forum: A Preliminary Look ................................ 454 1. A moot brief....................................... 454 2. The experience under the New York statute .... 455 Part II. The Invitation to Dinner Case .................. 457 Problem No. 16. The Search for Policy: Remedial Policy............................................. 458 Oppenheim v. Kridel ..................................... 458 Background Notes on Judicial Effectuation of Established Policies by the Recognition of Novel Rights of Action .................................. 465 Part I. The Oppenheim Case.................................. 465 A. The Question of Unfair Surprise...................... 465 B. The Push of the Reasons Supporting the Plaintiff . . 466 C. Statutes as a Place To Search for Public Policy .... 467 D. The Alternative of Refusing To Admit a Husband’s Right of Action.......................... 467 Part II. Public Wrong and Private Right of Action........ 468 Part III. Contracts Against Public Policy................ 470 Gellhorn, Contracts and Public Policy ............. 470 Part IV. The Unborn Plaintiff............................ 473 Part V. The Problem of Daily v. Parker................... 476 Note on the Development of Rights of Action in the Common Law Courts and in Equity ......................... 478 Subsection C. The Legislature as a Preferable Forum......... 482 Problem No. 17. The Problem of Common Law Crimes............ 482 Ohio v. Lafferty............................................ 482 Commonwealth v. McHale...................................... 487 Background Notes on Nullum Crimen Sine Lege ................ 491 A. The Principle Against Retroactivity..................... 491 B. The Doctrine of Strict Construction of Penal Statutes ............................................. 492 C. Common Law Crimes and the Principle of Legality . ...................................... 492 1. The case against common law crimes ................ 492 2. The position today in the various states and in England..................................... 494 3. The problem in the Lafferty case .................. 495 4. The problem in the McHale case ....................... 496 Problem No. 18. The Paradox of Making Law by Refusing To Make Law: The Halcyon Case ........................... 496 Halcyon Lines v. Haenn Ship Ceiling Refitting Corp........................................... 496 Background Notes on the Threatened Paralysis of the Federal Judicial Power...................................... 499 Part I. The Abdication in Halcyon ....................... 499 A. The Body of Law To Be Elaborated ..................... 499 B. The Puzzle About the Actual Holding .................. 500 C. The Relevant Principles of the Underlying Decisional Law ..................................... 501 D. The Bearing of the Compensation Act................... 504 1. The naked words of Section 5...................... 504 2. The test of a common liability and the question of unjust enrichment . ................. 505 3. The scheme of the statute: Herein of the theory of a special Congressional tenderness for negligent employers............... 507 E. Nature Abhors a Vacuum: The Aftermath of Abdication....................................... 511 F. Some Further Notes and Queries....................... 514 1. The expressed grounds of the Halcyon decision................................. 514 2. The unexpressed grounds of the Halcyon opinion.................................. 520 Part II. The Standard Oil Case: Herein the Myth of an All-Competent and Indefatigable Congress ................ 522 A. The Decision ......................................... 522 B. Some Rather Sharp Comments............................ 523 Problem No. 19. Judicial Control of the Ethics of Newsgathering: The International News Service Case................................................ 527 International News Service v. The Associated Press ................................................... 527 Section 4 Some Problems of Stare Decisis......................... 545 Problem No. 20. The Judicious Reinterpretation of Precedents: The Case of the Buick with Three Good Wheels........................................ 545 MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co............................. 545 Background Notes on the Distinguishing of Precedents Compared with Square Overruling ............................ 555 Part I. The MacPherson Case ................................ 555 A. The Bearing of the Obligation To Draw Reasoned Distinctions ....................................... 555 B. The Question of Unfair Surprise....................... 556 C. The Significance of the Primary-Remedial Distinction ....................................... 557 D. The Recurring Institutional Comparison................ 558 Part II. Some Excerpts from Llewellyn, The Bramble Bush......................................... 558 Part III. The Case of the Dry Hydrants..................... 562 A. The Reimann Decisions.................................. 562 B. Some Notes and Queries................................. 566 C. A Postscript........................................... 567 Note on the Reasons Supporting a General Practice of Adherence to Prior Holdings ............................... 568 A. A Tentative Formulation of the Bases of the Doctrine of Stare Decisis........................... 568 1. In furtherance of private ordering................... 568 2. In furtherance of fair and efficient adjudication ....................................... 568 3. In furtherance of public confidence in the judiciary........................................ 569 B. A Recapitulation.......................................... 569 C. A Glimpse of the Practice in the Civil Law ............ 570 D. A Glimpse of the Practice of the House of Lords .............................................. 572 Problem No. 21. The Justification for Retrospective Overruling: The Case of the Bashful Principal.............. 576 Crowley v. Lewis............................................. 576 Background Notes on Retrospective Overruling.................. 578 Part I. The Crowley Case .................................. 578 A. Some Contemporary Views of the Problem.............. 578 B. Some Notes and Queries................................. 581 C. The Aftermath in the Legislature.................... 583 Part II. The Election Outrage ................................ 584 A. The Georgi Decision.................................... 584 B. The Legislature’s Action .............................. 585 C. The Position of the Restatement..................... 586 Part III. An American Image of the House of Lords: Herein of Stare Decisis in Relation to Remedial Rules................................. 587 Part IV. A Problem of Retrospective Overruling in the Sphere of Primary Law: The Immunity of Charitable Organizations from Liability for the Torts of Their Employees ....................... 588 Part V. A Glance at Stare Decisis and Property Rights.......................................... 590 Part VI. Stability of Principle versus Stability of Rule ......................................... 592 Part VII. A Testing Question............................... 596 Note on Stare Decisis in Inferior Courts...................... 597 A. The Girouard Case ..................................... 597 B. An Experiment in Israel................................ 598 Problem No. 22. The Justification for Prospective Overruling: The Case of the Bashful Principal Again................................ 599 Background Notes on Prospective Overruling ................... 600 Part I. The Practice in State Courts........................ 600 A. The Protection of Those Relying on Prior Interpretations of Criminal Statutes............... 600 B. The Protection of Officials Relying Upon the Constitutionality of Unconstitutional Statutes.............................................. 603 C. Prospective Overruling in Private Civil Litigation .................................... 604 D. The Constitutionality of Prospective Overruling by a State Court........................ 606 Part II. The Practice in the Federal Courts ................ 608 A. The Obsolete Doctrine of Gelpecke v. Dubuque................................... 609 B. The Extraordinary Doctrine of Warring v, Colpoys.................................... 609 C. A Suggestion of General Judicial Freedom To Legislate Prospectively ........................... 615 A Further Note on the Conflict of Laws in Time................. 615 Part I. Constitutional Limitations Upon Changes in the Grounds of Judicial Decision ............. 617 Part II. Statutory Changes .................................... 618 A. Constitutional Limitations.............................. 619 1. Bills of attainder................................... 619 2. Ex post facto laws................................... 619 3. Law impairing the obligation of contracts......... 620 4. Due process inhibitions upon retroactive statutes............................... 621 a. Retroactive creation of primary duties .......... 621 b. The special problem of the tax cases ........... 623 c. Impairment of primary advantages from pre-enactment transactions......................... 624 d. Impairment of accrued right of action............. 625 e. Impairment of adjudicated rights................... 627 B. Interpretation of Statutes ............................. 628 1. The general presumption of prospective operation ......................................... 628 2. The special problem of repealing statutes......... 628 Part III. Changes in Administratively Made Law.............. 629 Section 5. The Function of Adjudication Reviewed ...... 630 Problem No. 23. Advisory Opinions: The Case of Mr. Jefferson’s Incompleted Forward Pass ...................... 630 Background Notes on Judicial Lawmaking Otherwise than as an Incident to Adjudication ........................... 632 A. The Analytical Nature of Advisory Opinions.............. 632 B. The Power of the Justices To Give Authoritative Opinions ............................... 634 C. The Wisdom of Giving Opinions Which Would Not Be Authoritative ................................. 637 D. The Justices’ Solution ................................. 637 E. Other Problems of Fitness for the Exercise of Law-Declaring Powers......................... 638 F. The Counseling Function of the Bar................ 639 G. The Courts as Last-Ditch Agencies in Settling Disputes About the Application of Law........... 640 A Note on the Problems Appropriate for Adjudication........ 640 A. Some Basic Elements of the Concept of Adjudication........................................ 642 B. Reasoned Decision as Integral in the Concept of Adjudication ............................ 643 C. The Kinds of Disputes Which Lend Themselves to Reasoned Decision................................... 646 CHAPTER 4· LAWMAKING AND THE POLITICAL PROCESS 649 Section 1. Direct Popular Lawmaking ............................ 649 Prefatory Note .............................................. 649 Problem No. 24. An Initiative Petition in Massachusetts............................................. 649 Background Notes on the Initiative and Referendum ............................................... 651 Part I. The Relevant Constitutional Provisions............ 651 Excerpts from Article 48 of the Massachusetts Constitution.......................... 651 Part II. Judicial Resolution of the Problem............. 658 Bowe v. Secretary of the Commonwealth.................. 658 Part III. The Initiative and Referendum as Modes of Lawmaking.................................. 667 A. Historical Development and Present Status .......... 667 B. Problems in the Use of the Initiative ......... 668 C. A Brief Look at the Referendum ..................... 669 D. A Brief Bibliography ............................... 670 Section 2. Election of Public Officials......................... 670 Prefatory Note .............................................. 670 Problem No. 25. Securing a More Equitable Plan of Districting for the Election of Members of a State Legislature and of Representatives in Congress .............................................. 672 Background Notes on Legislative Reapportionment.............. 672 Part I. The Existing Laws................................. 672 A. Apportionment of Illinois’ Representation in Congress....................................... 672 1. The Senate..................................... 672 2. The House of Representatives..................... 673 B. Apportionment in the State Legislature.............. 674 C. The Situation in Other States....................... 676 Part II. The Possibility of Recourse to the Courts ..... 677 A. The Federal Courts.................................. 677 B. The State Courts.................................... 680 Part III. The Possibility of Recourse to Congress.......... 682 A. As to State Districting............................... 682 B. As to Congressional Districting .................... 682 Part IV. The Possibility of Recourse to the State Legislature......................................... 684 A. As to State Districting............................... 684 B. As to Congressional Districting .................... 684 Part V. The Possibility of Recourse to the Procedure of State Constitutional Amendment......................... 685 Note on the Relation Between the Voters’ Choice and the Determination of Public Policy by the Legislature ................................. 687 CHAPTER 5. LEGISLATURES AND THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS............................................. 693 Prefatory Note ................................................. 693 Section 1. Introductory Text on the Legislature’s Function........................................................ 696 Note on the Business of the Legislature....................... 696 Part I. The Major Tasks ................................... 697 A. Legislation for the Functioning of the Entire Governmental Establishment................... 697 1. Organization and improvement of governmental structure and procedure........................... 697 2. Management of the public purse.................... 698 3. Supervision of government housekeeping.............. 698 B. General Legislation Affecting Private Control ............................................ 698 1. Distinctively legislative techniques of control—regulatory and non-regulatory............. 698 2. General responsibility for legal doctrine ......... 699 a. Codification and general statutory revision . . . 699 b. Repair and modification of legal doctrine...... 699 C. Forge and Anvil of Major Public Policy................ 700 D. Private and Special Legislation ...................... 701 E. Legislative Functions Other Than Enactment.......... 701 1. Investigating functions ............................ 701 2. Other non-enactment functions of the legislature....................................... 702 3. Responsibilities of individual legislators ......... 702 Part II. The Relative Importance of the Tasks ............. 702 A. A Statistical Compilation .......................... 702 B. A Few Tentative Non-Statistical Comments ............. 704 Note on the Structural and Procedural Framework for Carrying on the Legislature’s Business . ................... 705 A. The Two-House Frame: Tradition or Wisdom?............... 705 B. The Committee System: Division of Labor................. 706 C. The Legislature’s Leaders: The Allocation of Power .............................................. 710 D. The Members of the Legislature: Personal Characteristics and Qualifications...................... 715 E. Staff Assistance: What Kind of Help Do Legislators Need? . ................................... 718 F. The Time Available for Legislative Action: The Short Intermittent Session ......................... 721 G. Principal Procedural Roadblocks in the Enactment of a Bill . ............................ . . 724 Section 2. Codification and Revision of Decisional Law . . 726 Problem No. 26. Declaration of Law Through the Form of Enactment: The Restatements of the Law .................. . 726 Report of the Committee on the Establishment of a Permanent Organization for the Improvement of the Law Proposing the Establishment of an American Law Institute..................................... 728 Background Notes on the Restatements of the Law .............. 735 A. A Summary of What the Institute Did ................... 735 B. Some Crucial Decisions of the Institute................ 736 1. The decision to state only “existing law” ................................... 737 2. The decision to state rules and not principles .............................. . . 740 3. The decision to rely on authority rather than reason................................... 741 4. The failure to develop any theory of stare decisis or of the responsibility of the courts for the creative development of the law .......... 742 C. The Restatements in the Law Schools.................. 744 D. The Restatements in the Courts....................... 744 E. The Restatement of Agency (Second) and the Institute s Change of Policy in 1953 ............. 746 F. Some Notes and Queries................................. 747 Note on General Codification of the Law ......................... 749 Part L Some Background Facts .............................. 749 A. A Brief Historical Sketch .......................... 750 B. Development of the French and German Codes .... 751 C. Code Provisions on the Problem of Third Party Beneficiaries.................................. 754 1. French Civil Code ................................ 754 2. German Civil Code.................................... 754 D. A Brief Survey of Codification in the United States ....................................... 756 1. The Great Nineteenth Century Debate and the Verdict in New York................................ 756 2. The California Experience ........................... 757 Alstyne, The California Civil Code................... 758 3. The Louisiana Experience ............................ 763 Part II. Some Problems of General Codification............. 764 A. The Absence of an Underpinning for the Code .... 764 B. The Dangers of Rigidity................................ 764 C. Recourse to Generality................................ 764 1. The viewpoint of the draftsmen of the French Civil Code............................... 764 2. The general clauses in continental codes........ 766 a. Examples of the clauses....................... 766 b. A commentary on the German experience .... 767 Hedemann, Die Flucht in die Generalklauseln . 767 D. Some Remaining Problems ........................... 773 Problem No. 27. Interstitial Correction of Decisional Doctrines of General Application........................... 774 Background Notes on the Dilemmas Faced by a Legislature Which Disapproves a Particular Judicial Decision ........ 775 A. The Job To Be Done ................................... 775 B. The Alternative of Merely Corrective Action by a Statute in Code Form........................... 776 C. The Alternative of Partial or Fragmentary Codification Going Beyond More Correction........... 777 D. The Alternative of a Merely Corrective Statute Addressed to the Decisional Process........ 780 E. The Alternative of a Simple Declaration of the Right to Privacy .............................. 783 Note on the New York Law Revision Commission ............... 783 A. Genesis of the Commission ............................ 783 B. The Statute............................................. 785 C. The Commission’s Work .................................. 786 Problem No. 28. Interstitial Change in Decisional Law of Special Application to a Particular Industry ......... 792 Background Notes on Defamation by Broadcast and on Lobbying by Lawyers...................................... 793 Part I. A Short Summary of the State of the Decisional Law ..................................... 793 A. The Necessity of Proving Damages................... 794 B. Character of the Publisher’s Conduct............... 795 C. The Problem of Political Broadcasts ............... 796 Part II. The Constitutional Requirement of Equal Protection of the Laws................................ 797 A. The General Approach of the Supreme Court of the United States............................... 797 Railway Express Agency, Inc. v. New York ........ 797 B. Some Analogous State Decisions....................... 802 Part III. Legislative Developments Concerning Radio Defamation ....................................... 802 Part IV. Lobbying and the Lawyer......................... 804 A. The Function of Lobbying in the Legislative Process................................ 804 Brandeis, The Opportunity in the Law........... 804 B. The Lawyer as Lobbyist............................... 806 Horsky, The Washington Lawyer...................... 806 Part V. Some Notes and Queries ............................ 809 Problem No, 29. Revision of Judicial Interpretation of an Existing Statute .................................. 810 Background Notes on the Factory Inspection Amendment .................................................. 815 Part I. Judicial Foreword ............................... 815 A. The Cardiff Decision .............................. 815 United States v. Cardiff........................ 815 B. Some Notes and Queries............................. 817 Part II. The Dispute over Scope of Inspection............ 818 A. Contrasting Views of a Lawyer and a Congressman....................................... 818 Statement of Thomas Austern, Counsel, National Canners Association, Washington, D.C............. 818 B. The Factory Inspection Enactment ................... 830 C. Subsequent Legislative History........................ 831 D. Some Notes and Queries................................ 832 Part III. The Uses of the Committee Hearing.............. 833 A. A Proposal for Reform ................................ 833 Cohen, Hearing on a Bill: Legislative Folklore? . . 833 Cohen Robson, The Lawyer and the Legislative Hearing Process ..................... 840 B. Some Notes and Queries................................ 843 Section 3. Distinctively Legislative Techniques of Control of Private Conduct .................................... 844 Note on Distinctively Legislative Techniques of Influencing Primary Private Conduct......................... 844 Part I. Private Autonomy and the Method of Governmental Hands-Off.................................. 845 Part II. The Method of Governmental Regulation........... 845 A. The Basic Regime of Self-Applying Regulation ....................................... 846 B. Techniques of Individualized Regulation............... 846 1. Prerequisites...................................... 847 2. Postrequisites .................................... 850 3. Individualized dissolution and readjustment of legal relations ................. 851 4. Individual directions.............................. 851 5. Exactions.......................................... 853 Part III. The Method Of Direct Coercion ................. 853 Part IV. The Method of Inducement ....................... 855 A. Persuasion............................................ 855 B. Pecuniary or Other Reward............................. 855 C. Bilateral Government Contracts........................ 856 Part V. The Method of Direct Government Action .......... 857 A. Public Education...................................... 858 B. Information and Publicity............................. 858 C. Research Services .................................... 859 D. Protective Services................................... 859 E. Public Works ........................................ 860 F. Donations ............................................. 860 G. Government Assurance................................... 860 H. Government Enterprises................................ 862 Subsection A. Regulatory Techniques............................. 863 Problem No. 30. A Rudimentary Change in the Common Law Method of Regulation......................................... 863 Background Notes on the Food and Drug Act of 1906 ........... 870 Part I. Political Pressures and Legislative Action........ 870 Regier, The Struggle for Federal Food and Drugs Legislation ..................................... 870 Part II. Federal Displacement of State Law .................. 879 Part III. Summary Review of Sanctions for the Enforcement of Self-Applying Law Governing Private Conduct ............................................. 881 A. Adequacy of the Existing Regime of Privately Enforced Civil Remedies.................... 881 B. Alternative Sanctions Available to the Congress...................................... 883 1. The use of the licensing technique............... 883 2. The use of criminal sanctions.................... 885 3. The use of officially enforced civil sanctions for self-applying duties.......... 887 4. The use of non-regulatory devices ............... 889 Problem No. 31. The Development of More Elaborate Techniques: Administered Regulation Through Licensing ................................ 889 Registration Statutes Proposed by the Counsel of State Governments................................... 890 A Proposed Licensing Statute ............................. 894 Background Notes on Charitable Solicitation and the Uses and Abuses of Licensing ................................ 899 A. The Significance of Charitable Activity ............... 899 B. Alleged Abuses in Solicitation of Funds................ 901 C. Existing State Legislation................................ 903 D. Some Constitutional Limitations on the Control of Charitable Solicitations.................... 907 E. An Important Digression: Licensing of Professions and Other Occupations.................................. 910 F. Some Notes and Queries.................................... 911 Problem No. 32. The Development of More Elaborate Techniques: Regulation Through Delegated Rulemaking Power............................................. 915 Excerpts from Federal Food, Drug And Cosmetic Act of 1938 . . 916 Background Notes on the Promulgation of Food Standards............................................... 917 A. A 1954 Review of Food Standardization..................... 917 Developments in the Law: The Federal Food, Drug And Cosmetic Act............................ 917 B. Some Notes and Queries................................. 923 Problem No. 33. The Choice of Techniques: A Simple Situation ....................................... 924 A Bill To Ensure Fair Educational Practices in the Educational Institutions of the State .......... 926 Note, Fair Education Practices Acts: A Solution To Discrimination?.................................... 929 Problem No. 34. The Limits of Wise and Effective Legal Action: A Complex Case ..................................... 936 Subsection B. Nonregulatory Techniques ........................ 936 Problem No. 35. Provision of Government Services and Pecuniary Inducements: The Uses of Insurance, Especially Against Floods .................................. 936 S. 3137 937 Background Notes on Flood and Other Kinds of Government Insurance ....................................... 943 Part I. The Problem of Floods and Flood Insurance ......................................... 943 A. The Nature of Floods.................................. 943 B. The Difficulty of Obtaining Private Flood Insurance.................................... 945 C. Legislation and Private Relief Facilities Before 1956 946 D. Major Provisions of the Federal Flood Insurance Act of 1956 ............................. 948 E. Some Notes and Queries............................... 950 Part II. Use of the Insurance Device by the Federal Government....................................... 952 Section 4. Some Special Problems of Enforcement ................ 953 Subsection A. Private Legislation ............................. 953 Problem No. 36. A Special Law Dealing with a Municipal Disaster......................................... 953 S. 1077 Texas City Claims Act (As enacted by the Senate) ........................... 954 S. 1077 Texas City Claims Act (As enacted by the House of Representatives)........ 958 Background Notes on the Texas City Disaster and Private Bills............................................... 960 Part I. Judicial Background and Legislative History......... 960 A. The Dalehite Case..................................... 960 Dalehite v. United States.......................... 960 B. Legislative History of Texas City Private Bills...................................... 970 C. Rules Controlling Conference Committees............... 975 1. Cleaves Manual of the Law and Practice in Regard to Conferences and Conference Reports............ 975 2. Standing Rules for Conducting Business in the Senate of the United States (Rule XXVII: Reports of Conference Committees) ........... 976 3. Rules of the House of Representatives of the United States .................................. 976 D. The Final Legislative Product ...................... 977 E. Some Notes and Queries........................... 977 Part II. The Status of Private Bill Legislation Generally............................................... 979 A. The Shift from Legislative to Judicial Determination of Private Claims ................ 979 B. Nature and Number of Private Bills............... 981 C. Private Claims Bill Procedure ................... 982 D. Some Notes and Queries........................... 984 Subsection B. Government Appropriations ................... 985 Problem No. 37. The Nature of the Appropriations Function: Another Look at Flood Insurance............................ 985 Hearings Before the Independent Offices Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations on an Appropriation for the Flood Insurance Program .................. 985 Background Notes on the Appropriations Function............ 1002 A. What Happened to the Appropriation for Federal Flood Insurance......................... 1002 B. A General View of the Relation of Appropriations to Policymaking ..................... 1004 C. Some Notes and Queries................................ 1005 Section 5. Legislative Investigations and Other Non-Enactment Functions.......................................1007 Problem No. 38. The Legislature as Overseer of Executive and Administrative Agencies .................... 1007 CHAPTER 6* THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH AND THE ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS.................................. . . 1009 Section 1. The Chief Executive .................................1009 Prefatory Note ............................................. 1009 Note on the Functions of the Chief Executive in Connection with the Enactment of Statutes............................ 1010 Note on the Functions of the President in the Negotiation of Treaties................................................1010 Problem No. 39. The Nature of Executive Power: The President’s Authority Under the Constitution To Seize the Steel Industry in 1952 .................... 1010 Background Notes on the Steel Seizure and the Executive Function.................................... 1012 Part I. The Problem and the Available Choices............. 1012 A. The Background of the Threatened Strike and the President’s Initial Action Under Title V of the Defense Production Act of 1950 ................. 1012 B. The Alternative of a Taft-Hartley Injunction...................................... 1017 C. The Alternative of Seizure Under the Selective Service Act of 1948 ................... 1018 D. The Alternative of Condemnation Under the Defense Production Act of 1950 ................... 1019 E. The Do-Nothing Alternative of Submitting the Problem to Congress ................1020 F. The Choice of Seizure Pursuant to the Constitutional Grant of Executive Power............1020 Executive Order No. 10,340 1021 Part II. The Supreme Court’s Answer to the Questions........................................... 1023 Youngstown Sheet Tube Co. v. Sawyer..................1023 Part III. Some Notes and Queries........................... 1039 A. The Constitutional Issue Presented for Decision ..................................... 1039 B. The Question Whether Congress Had Prohibited the President’s Course of Action...................1040 C. The Merits of the President’s Constitutional Position . . ..................................... 1042 D. Some Other Aspects of the Steel Case...............1043 E. President Truman’s Retrospective Comments............1045 Note on Lawmaking by Proclamation and Executive Order ........................................... 1046 Note on the Relation of the Chief Executive and His Personal Staff to the Executive Departments and Administrative Agencies ................... 1046 Section 2· The Law Officers of the Government...................1047 Prefatory Note ............................................... 1047 Problem No. 40. The Prosecuting Attorney’s Office Discretion Not To Prosecute ............................... 1048 Wilbur v. Howard............................................1048 Background Notes on Prosecutor’s Discretion ...................1054 Part I. Discretion To Make Statutes a Dead Letter........................................... 1054 Part II. Discretion in the Selection of Particular Cases for Prosecution........................ 1058 Part III. Discretion in the Choice of Sanctions............................................ 1059 Part IV. Discretion in the Allocation of Enforcement Resources Under a Limited Budget.......................................... 1059 Note on the Control of Government Litigation and the Assignment of Public Rights of Action ..................1060 Section 3. The Administrative Process ............................1060 Prefatory Note .............................................. 1060 Problem No. 41. Administrative Enforcement: An Experiment in Novel Techniques........................ 1061 Baltimore Ordinance on the Hygiene of Housing............ 1062 Rules and Regulations Governing the Hygiene of Housing in Baltimore...............................1065 Background Notes on the Enforcement of Municipal Housing Codes .................................. 1067 A. The Housing Code as a Part of the Answer to the Housing Problem....................... 1067 Note, Municipal Housing Codes ...................... 1067 B. A Description of the Operation of the Baltimore Plan ............................... 1069 Siegel Brooks, Slum Prevention Through Conservation and Rehabilitation ...................1069 Problem No. 42. Issuing an Administrative Regulation: Bathtubs in Baltimore ................................... 1074 Baltimore Rules and Regulations Governing the Hygiene of Housing as Proposed in 1954 ....................... 1076 Background Notes on the Baltimore Housing Regulations .............................................. 1079 A. Constitutional Issues of Due Process and Equal Protection................................ 1079 B. The Delegation of Legislative Power................... 1080 C. The Use of General versus Specific Language............................................ 1081 D. More Ambitious Housing Programs and the Limits of Regulatory Control............................... 1081 Problem No. 43. Drafting an Administrative Opinion: The Oil Pump Fiasco....................................... 1083 Matter of Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey ................ 1084 Matter of Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey ................ 1088 Federal Trade Commission v. Sinclair Refining Co...........1095 Background Notes on the Oil Pump Problem and the Significance of Administrative Opinions ................................................. 1098 Part I. The Commission’s Handling of the Oil Pump Problem........................................1098 A. Excerpts from the Henderson Study .................. 1098 Henderson, The Federal Trade Commission .............1098 B. The Nature of the Problem Posed by Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act.............. 1099 C. Further Excerpts from the Henderson Study............1103 Henderson, The Federal Trade Commission .............1103 D. Some Notes and Queries.............................. 1106 E. The Later History of the Issues in the Oil Pump Cases................................... 1107 Part II. Some General Notes on the Significance of Administrative Opinions ............................ 1109 Note on the Function of an Administrative Hearing...........1109 CHAPTER 7. THE ROLE OF THE COURTS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF STATUTES..................................1111 Section 1. The Function of Judicial Interpretation: In General .................................................1111 Note on Some Contrasting Approaches........................ 1111 A. The Mischief Rule................................... 1111 Hey don’s Case....................................... 1111 B. The Golden Rule.................................... 1112 C. The Literal Rule.................................... 1112 D. The Plain Meaning Rule in the United States.........1112 E. The Hypostasis of Legislative Intention.............. 1113 F. A Second Breath of Fresh Air........................ 1114 Lieber, Legal and Political Hermeneutics............. 1114 G. A Short Bibliography................................. 1115 Problem No. 44. The Validity of a Literal Approach........1116 Part I. The Whiteley Case................................1116 A. The Opinions ..................................... 1116 Whiteley v. Chappell .............................. 1116 B. Some Queries About the Whiteley Case ............ 1118 Part II. The London India Docks Case................. 1126 A. The Opinions ..................................... 1126 London India Docks Co. v. Thames Steam Tug Lighterage Co................................ 1126 B. Some Queries About the London India Docks Case.......................................1131 Part III. The Johnson Case...............................1133 A. The Opinions ..................................... 1133 Johnson v. Southern Pacific Co......................1133 B. Some Queries About the Johnson Case .............1142 Part IV. The Brown Case..................................1144 A. The Opinion....................................... 1144 Brown v. United States............................. 1144 B. Some Queries About the Brown Case .................1147 Problem No. 45. The Outlines of a Valid Approach .........1149 Johnson v. Southern Pacific Co...........................1149 United States v. Brown.................................. 1156 Mitchell v. Cohen ...................................... 1162 Background Notes on the Johnson, Brown, and Mitchell Cases ......................................... 1169 Note on What To Expect from a Theory of Statutory Interpretation.......................................... 1169 Blackstone’s Rules of Interpretation .......................1170 Problem No. 46. The Special Problem of New Applications of Old Enactments ......................... 1172 Commonwealth v. Welosky................................. 1172 Background Notes on the Problem of New Applications of Old Enactments ......................... 1180 A. Additional Case Law on Female Jurors................. 1180 B. Some Notes and Queries..................................1182 C. Changed Statutory Meaning Based on New Constitutional Interpretation.....................1185 Note on the Limits Set by Permissible Word Meanings................................................... 1187 A. The Problem of Lapsus Linguae......................... 1187 B. The Anatomy of Problems of Communication ............. 1188 C. Ascertaining the Linguistically Correct Meaning of Particular Words: Herein of the Use of Dictionaries.............................. 1190 D. Ascertaining the Linguistically Correct Meaning of Typical Forms of Word Arrangements: Herein of the Use of Maxims of Construction.......................................1190 E. Cutting Down the Generality of Language ................1192 F. Enlarging Restrictive Language ........................ 1194 G. Why Should Word Meanings Be Respected at All?.................................... 1194 Problem No. 47. A Test Case on Restricting the Generality of Language................................. 1196 Smith v. Hiatt ........................................... 1197 Problem No. 48. A Test Case on Enlarging Seemingly Restrictive Language............................. 1198 Problem No. 49. The Strict Construction of Penal Statutes ............................................ 1198 People v. Soto............................................. 1199 McBoyle v. United States .................................. 1201 United States u. Hood ..................................... 1202 United States v, Cardiff................................... 1205 Background Notes on Policies of Clear Statement ............. 1205 Part I. The Policy in Criminal Cases ..................... 1205 A. Customary versus Regulatory Crimes ...................1205 B. A Contemporary Formulation......................... . 1208 C. A Query ............................................. 1209 Part II. Other Policies of Clear Statement................ 1209 Section 2* Pre-Enactment Aids to Interpretation ................1211 Prefatory Note on the Significance of the Background of a Statute.................................... 1211 Problem No. 50. The Use of Internal Legislative History....................................... 1212 Schwegmann Bros. v. Calvert Distillers Corp.....................................................1212 Background Notes on Legislative History........................1228 Part I. The Schwegmann Case............................... 1228 A. The Purpose Attributed to the Statute by the Court .............................. 1228 B. The Possibility of a Different Purpose...............1229 C. Choice Without Benefit of Legislative History......1231 D. The Weight of the Legislative History.............. 1232 Part II. The British Rule of Total Exclusion............. 1233 Part III. The Practice in the United States ............. 1235 A. The Kinds of Materials Which May Be Persuasive..................................... 1235 B. The Plain Meaning Rule and Its Overthrow.................................... 1236 C. The Practice in the State Courts ............... . . . 1238 Part IV. Some Test Cases................................. 1238 A. The Caminetti Case.................................. 1238 B. The American Trucking Case.......................... 1243 C. The Public Utilities Commission Case...............1245 Part V. The Accessibility Of Materials On The Legislative History................................ 1247 A. What Justice Jackson Said .......................... 1247 B. The Facts—Then and Now ............................ 1248 Part VI. Extra-Cameral Views of Individual Legislators and Draftsmen ............................. 1252 Part VII. A Suggested Restatement......................... 1253 Section 3. Post-Enactment Aids To Interpretation ................1255 Subsection A. Popular Construction........................... 1255 Problem No. 51. The Importance of the Way People Have Acted in Response to a Statute................................................. 1255 Anderson v. Mt. Clemens Pottery Co........................ 1255 Background Notes on Popular Construction .................... 1265 A. The Portal-to-Portal Snafu............................. 1265 B. The Relevance and Competence of Popular Construction in Principle .......................... 1268 Subsection B. Administrative Construction ................... 1271 Problem No. 52. The Significance of Prior Administrative Action: Regulations and Rulings............................................... 1271 Federal Communications Commission v. American Broadcasting Co., Inc......................... 1271 White v. Aronson......................................... 1278 Background Notes on the Weight To Be Accorded Administrative Regulations and Rulings.................... 1282 A. Different Kinds of Regulations and Rulings......................................... 1282 B. A Case Excerpt Relating to a Legislative Regulation ............................. 1283 C. A Case Relating to an Interpretive Ruling...............1284 Skidmore v. Swift Co.............................. 1284 D. Some Notes and Queries................................. 1288 Problem No. 53. The Significance Of Prior Administrative Action: Adjudication........................ 1292 Director, United States Bureau Of Mines u. Princess Elkhorn Coal Co......................1292 Social Security Board v. Nierotko......................... 1297 L. Gillarde Co. v. Joseph Martinelli Co.................1306 Background Notes on the Weight To Be Given Administrative Adjudication................................ 1307 A. Significance of the Function of Adjudication......................................... 1307 B. Judicial Review of Administrative Finding of Facts and Application of Law...................... 1311 C. A Different Approach to the Court’s Problems..................................... 1312 Subsection C. Judicial Construction........................... 1313 Problem No. 54. Stare Decisis in Statutory Interpretation............................................ 1313 Toolson v. New York Yankees, Inc:...........................1314 United States v. Shubert................................... 1319 United States v. International Boxing Club Of New York, Inc....................................1325 Background Notes on Stare Decisis in Statutory Interpretation .................................. 1333 Part I. The Baseball-Theater-Boxing Imbroglio ............. 1333 A. The Soundness of Toolson ........................... 1333 B. The Bearing of Toolson in Shubert and International Boxing............................... 1335 C. An Incidental Query ................................. 1336 Part II. The Dilemma in United States 1/. Classic............................................. 1336 Part III. Caminetti Revisited.............................. 1338 Part IV. The Phenomenon of Erie............................ 1338 Part V. Dean Levi’s Thesis................................. 1340 Note on the Construction of Much-Construed Statutes.................................................. 1343 Section 4. Interpreting the Silences of the Legislature: Herein of the Use of Statutes by Analogy.......................1344 Problem No. 55. Silence as a Bar or as an Invitation to Overruling .................................. 1344 Girouard u. United States.................................. 1345 Background Notes on the Implications of Legislative Silence........................................ 1356 Part I. The Girouard Problem Viewed as a Responsibility of the Court........................ 1356 A. The Soundness of the Earlier Decisions as an Original Matter ............................... 1356 B. The Factors Tending to Rebut the Presumption of Stare Decisis...................................... 1357 Part II. The Implications of the Failure of Congress To Legislate................................. 1358 A. The Competence and Relevance of Legislative Inaction.................................. 1358 B. The Position of the Courts ......................... 1360 C. Some Queries......................................... 1364 Part III. The Implications of Reenactment .................1365 A. The Question of Competence .......................... 1365 B. Relevance: The Justification for an Invariable Inference of Adoption .......................................... 1365 C. Relevance: The Justification for an Occasional Inference of Approval................... 1368 Part IV. The Negative Implications of Delimited Action......................................... 1369 Part V. The Positive Implications of Delimited Action......................................... 1370 Section 5. Some Concluding Observations............................1370 Radbruch, Einfuehrung in die Rechtswissenschaft ............ 1370 Note on the Rudiments of Statutory Interpretation ............1374 A. The General Nature of the Task of Interpretation ............................... 1374 B. The Mood In Which the Task Should Be Done ....................................... 1374 C. A Concise Statement of the Task........................ 1374 D. The Double Role of the Words as Guides to Interpretation.............................. 1375 E. The Meaning the Words Will Bear......................... 1375 F. Policies of Clear Statement............................. 1376 G. The Attribution of Purpose ............................. 1377 1. Enacted statements of purpose......................... 1377 2. Inferring purpose: the nature of the problem..................................... 1377 3. Inferring purpose: the technique...................... 1378 4. Inferring purpose: aids from the context ....................................... 1379 5. Inferring purpose: post-enactment aids............................................... 1379 6. Inferring purpose: presumptions........................1380 H. Interpreting the Words To Carry Out the Purpose....................................... 1380 Index, 1383
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author	Hart, Henry M. 1904-1969 Sacks, Albert M.
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author_facet	Hart, Henry M. 1904-1969 Sacks, Albert M.
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discipline	Rechtswissenschaft
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geographic	USA USA (DE-588)4078704-7 gnd
geographic_facet	USA
id	DE-604.BV017463586
illustrated	Illustrated
indexdate	2024-12-20T11:19:37Z
institution	BVB
isbn	1566622360
language	English
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-010521968
oclc_num	31455176
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physical	CXXXIX, 1387 S. Ill.
publishDate	1994
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publisher	Foundation Press
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spellingShingle	Hart, Henry M. 1904-1969 Sacks, Albert M. The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law Recht Law United States Cases Prozessrecht (DE-588)4047593-1 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4047593-1 (DE-588)4078704-7
title	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law
title_auth	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law
title_exact_search	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law
title_full	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law by Henry M. Hart and Albert M. Sacks. Prepared for publ. from the 1958 tentative ed. by, and containing an introd. essay by, William N. Eskridge ...
title_fullStr	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law by Henry M. Hart and Albert M. Sacks. Prepared for publ. from the 1958 tentative ed. by, and containing an introd. essay by, William N. Eskridge ...
title_full_unstemmed	The legal process basic problems in the making and application of law by Henry M. Hart and Albert M. Sacks. Prepared for publ. from the 1958 tentative ed. by, and containing an introd. essay by, William N. Eskridge ...
title_short	The legal process
title_sort	the legal process basic problems in the making and application of law
title_sub	basic problems in the making and application of law
topic	Recht Law United States Cases Prozessrecht (DE-588)4047593-1 gnd
topic_facet	Recht Law United States Cases Prozessrecht USA
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=010521968&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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Inhaltsverzeichnis