Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki: gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.)
Gespeichert in:
| Beteiligte Personen: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polnisch |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Kraków
Towarzystwo Autorów i Wydawców Prac Naukowych Universitas
2014
|
| Schlagwörter: | |
| Links: | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027460613&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027460613&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: From the world of medieval symbolism |
| Umfang: | 275 S., [4] Bl. Ill. ; 21 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788324226030 |
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| 264 | 1 | |a Kraków |b Towarzystwo Autorów i Wydawców Prac Naukowych Universitas |c 2014 | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1819368226509815808 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | SPIS TREŚCI
Wstęp
............................ 7
I. Postawa i gest składających przysięgę
........
2Ъ
II.
Na co przysięgano?
.................. 68
Ш.
Przysięga ustrojowa
.................. 151
1.
Przysięga sakry władzy-elekcyjna
......... 151
2.
Przysięga hołdownicza: władca—poddani
...... 159
3.
Przysięga feudalna— wierności
............ 167
IV
Przysięga sądowa
................... 173
1.
Procesowa
...................... 173
2.
Kontraktowa
—
dłużna
................ 181
3.
Rozstrzygająca-zwalniająca
............. 185
4.
Przysięga uwalniająca z ekskomuniki
........ 189
5.
Zaprzysięganie testamentu
.............. 192
V
Zaprzysięganie pokojów, rozejmów i sojuszy
..... 193
1.
Traktaty pokojowe
.................. 193
2.
Układy, sojusze i przymierza
............. 204
3.
Rozejmy
....................... 211
VI.
Przysięga duchownych
................ 216
1.
Księża i zakonnicy
.................. 216
2.
Biskupi i arcybiskupi
................. 229
Zakończenie
......................... 240
Bibliografìa
.......................... 251
Summary..........................
269
Summary
From the world of medieval symbolism: the gesture
and form of oaths in Christian Europe
(between the
IO*11
and 15th centuries)
The research focusing on the gesture and form of oaths in Latin Chris¬
tian Europe in the late Middle Ages is not easy to conduct, and this
results from a number of reasons. One of them is extensive fragmenta¬
tion of scarce source materials (written and
iconographie),
which makes
us realise the need to pursue further research in order to complement
and complete the image that is being recreated and reconstructed.
The issue per
se
is very interesting and it does deserve more specific
attention than it has received so far on the part of researchers.
What posture was assumed in the Middle Ages when swearing an
oath? It can be inferred from the present analysis of written and
icono¬
graphie
sources developed between the 9th and 15th centuries that two
positions prevailed at that relatively long period of time, i.e. standing
and kneeling ones. However, the reasons for selecting one against the
other in various parts of Europe cannot be explained. What we know
today is that in the latter case the person swearing an oath was kneel¬
ing on one or both knees. Our knowledge on gestures performed with
their hands, palms and fingers is much more extensive. The chrono¬
logical and territorial dynamics of changes occurring in this field can
be observed. Across Latin Europe, in the late Middle Ages it was cus¬
tomary to raise one s right hand while taking an oath; this has been
confirmed in dozens of written and
iconographie
sources analysed in
this book. Obviously, this does not mean that there were no excep-
270
Summary
tions
at all: on some miniature paintings dating back to the 13th until
15th centuries that were created in France, the persons depicted swear
their oaths by raising their left hands. On the other hand, explicit im¬
ages of perjury (confirmed by a verbal commentary or a situational
context) were in some
iconographie
sources presented through the
gesture of the raised right hand. Therefore, a common opinion, al¬
ready well-rooted in the so far historiography, seems to be corrobo¬
rated that in the Middle Ages depicting a person swearing an oath with
his or her left hand being raised was a gesture of perjury.
The issue of using fingers while swearing an oath is very interest¬
ing as at the earliest stage
—
between the 9th and 11th centuries
—
two
straight fingers (index and middle ones) of the raised right hand were
noted only in
iconographie
sources from France. Probably this custom
reached the Reich and Bohemia (12th century), and then it expand¬
ed further towards the Teutonic State in Prussia, and most probably
it reached Poland and Livonia (13th to 14th centuries). Interestingly
enough, at the same time in Western Europe (in Italy from the 11th
century onwards; in Spain, France and England from the 12th century)
no such gestures, pertaining to oath taking, have been mentioned. The
entire palm, without fingers being distinguished, was used. However,
in the period between the 13th and 15th centuries, in the German-
speaking countries and Central Europe occasionally additional oath
taking gestures started to appear with three fingers raised, namely, the
thumb, index and middle fingers (the Reich, today s Switzerland
—
the
Old Swiss Confederacy at that time), or with one (index finger) in
Bohemia and Poland.
Lot of information is provided by written and
iconographie
sourc¬
es when it comes to objects, on which oaths were taken in the Middle
Ages. In the earliest period considered here (between the 10th and 12th
centuries) in Western and Southern Europe altars were used for that
very purpose (on which hands were put while saying the oath) as well
as reliquaries with relics of the saints, on which two fingers were most
probably put. The change of customs and rituals in this respect oc¬
curred in the first half of the 12th century in
Languedoc,
Provence and
Catalonia, and in Italy (in the 11th century). The above objects as well
as paraments and vestments were replaced with the book including
the four Gospels., and the ritual itself was gradually removed (although
not entirely) from the sacral space to the secular one (manors, castles,
palaces), or even to the open air (fields, forests, bridges). Probably
Summary
271
due to the activity of papal legates, the concept of oath taking on the
Gospel came to Central Europe. In the mid-twelfth century it emerged
in Bohemia, and in the next century in Hungary, in the State of the
Teutonic Order in Prussia and Poland. What should be particularly
stressed is the fact that when in Western Europe (Italy, France, Spain,
England) between the 13th and 15th centuries oaths were sworn almost
exclusively by putting one s hand on the book (open or closed) con¬
taining the Gospels (sometimes they were incorporated into the mis¬
sals), in Central Europe a bigger diversity was observed as throughout
the late Middle Ages oaths were taken on relics, crosses (crucifixes),
or the Gospels. The oath taken uf
(zu) den heiligen
prevailed in the
German-speaking territories, especially in towns; this process started
in the 13th century and lasted until the end of the Middle Ages. The
above concept, in the opinion of researchers, denotes relics that were
kept in reliquary boxes. These were actually in existence, and few of
them have survived until today. However, what this book attempts to
demonstrate, the very word
heiligen
that occurs in this context only
in the plural form, had a broader meaning, and thus it could embrace
crosses, crucifixes with a particle of the True Cross and other unspeci¬
fied vestments and paraments. Evidence exists that as far as oaths
are concerned (references to oaths were made relatively frequently
in written French normative sources dating back to the end of the
12th and 13th centuries), researchers while analysing them presumably
incorrectly interpreted Latin and French phrases such as iuramentum
ad
sacrosancta
or
jurer seur
sains . They did not refer to relics in
reliquaries
-
this view was quite common in the field literature
-
but
to books containing texts of the Gospels, and this view seems to be
corroborated in contemporary
iconographie
sources.
What technique was used while taking oaths on those books? By
far the most commonly applied way while saying a relevant formula was
to place an open right palm on the front cover of a closed book or on
one of the pages (probably the first one) of the text of one of the Gos¬
pels that was indicated by the oath recipients.
Iconographie
sources
allow us to observe certain subtle differences in the gesture and its
form. Some persons swearing their oaths put both palms on adjacent
pages of the open book. Others, however, put their right palm on
a given page, while their left palm supported the book from the bot¬
tom. There were also persons who held the book with their four fin¬
gers, while the thumb was placed on the top of the book,
^ret,
one
ob-
272
Summary
vious observation can be propounded: from the research performed
we can infer that in medieval Latin Europe oaths were taken on sacred
texts of the New Testament, e.g. the Gospels, missals or martyrologies
(calendars), but never on any texts related to secular laws or the canon
law. This results in another essential assumption that oaths on sacred
texts were always taken with one s entire palm, rather than individual
fingers. The above findings allow to reject suggestions, occurring in
the so far historiography, that in the Middle Ages oaths were sworn by
touching the cover of the book of laws (e.g.
Lübeck)
with two fingers,
or by applying two fingers to one-verse sentences from the Gospels
published
Ín
oath formulas in university registers.
In the Middle Ages particularly valuable objects, paraments and
vestments that enjoyed some sort of fame, for instance of the cultic
nature, were quite frequently used in oath taking rituals. Thus, in the
context of a complex and long-term process of the ratification of the
peace of Arras
(1433)
which was aimed to end the next stage of the
war between France and England, kings and dukes swore compliance
with its terms and conditions „on the Holy Sacrament of the Altar
and the gold cross on a pillow . In addition, the content of a notarial
instrument issued slightly later at St Martin s church in Tours presents
that King of France, Charles
VII,
swore in the terms of this treaty by
placing his palm on a certain unique book containing the four Gos¬
pels, identified as gold ( aureum ) by historical sources. This book
was to be put on the celebrant s lap. The Swedish elective monarchs
in the 14th century, from Magnus Eriksson onwards, during the coro¬
nation ceremony swore to obey the law with their palms placed on
a unique book (it was probably a lavishly decorated manuscript of the
four Gospels, dating back to the mid-twelfth century, that is stored in
Uppsala and referred to in sources using its own name Karlaknap )
and on relics, among which was the head of St John the Baptist. It
would be difficult to ignore the relics of the True Cross that had been
stored at the church of Saint-Laud in Angers since the 12th century.
In the 15th century it was used almost exclusively for oath taking. It
should be stressed that from the early 15th century in France in the
aforementioned ritual crucifixes and reliquaries were used again; the
mid-century saw the rise in the number of portable reliquaries that
were transported in the luggage of rulers.
As far as sacred items on which oaths were sworn in Latin Europe
in the late Middle Ages are concerned, it is hard not to mention the
Summary
273
Body of Christ, i.e., the consecrated Host. The origin of using the
Host for such rituals is still difficult to define. The earliest histori¬
cal mentions lead to the thirteenth-century Scandinavia (Denmark,
Sweden), but it is uncertain whether this custom has emerged there.
The consecrated Host was occasionally used in the second half of the
14th century and early 15th century in mutual political relations be¬
tween France and England, France and
Navarra
as well as France and
Burgundy, especially while swearing in peace agreements and treaties.
The ceremony itself was taking place mostly in churches during the
celebration of the Mass, and specifically at the time of calling Grant
us peace in the Lamb of God prayer. As we tried to demonstrate,
persons swearing the oath did not touch the Host (which was held by
the celebrant), but their right palms were reaching towards the Host;
at the same time they put their left palms on an open book (a missal
during the Holy Mass) that contained the texts of the four Gospels.
Swearing in the treaty between France and
Navarra
in
1358
had one
characteristic feature; the ceremony itself was held outside the temple
(in a cone-shaped tent), and the kings swore solely on the Host held
in the hands of the bishop. This Host was to be divided into two parts
and they were to take it as the Holy Communion (this did not happen,
however). Traces of this ritual are also visible in agreements concluded
between France and Burgundy in the early 15th century. The basis for
the regulations behind the coronation ceremony (dated
1365)
of kings
of France is still unknown; the regulations provided for the standard-
bearer holding the
Oriflamme
standard to swear the oath on the
body of Jesus Christ (with his right hand held out). At the same time
his left hand was probably to be put on the reliquary containing the
relics of St Dionysius (the ceremony took place at the cathedral of
Reims). In the first half of the 14th century, the ritual of oath taking
on the consecrated Host while concluding political arrangements was
used occasionally within the Reich, yet only in Bavaria and Austria.
Sometimes the contemporary historical sources mention oath
taking with both hands. Unfortunately, available historical evidence
explicitly corroborating the use of such ritual are extremely scarce. In
situations where an oath had to be sworn by a large group of people
gathered, they were simply to raise up their right hands and repeat the
formula being read out to them. As it can be inferred from the notarial
instrument issued on
18
July
1309
in Marseille, such solution was used
there because of the heat, a large number of people and the impos-
274
Summary
sibility
of taking the oath by each person individually. Similar reasons
were probably given also in other cases.
In late medieval Latin Christian Europe historical sources also
refer to extremely rare, or even unique, ways of oath taking. Undoubt¬
edly, one of these unique ways was the one that was intended to put
a stop to a long period of wars between the Kingdom of Poland and the
Teutonic Order as it can be recognised from the notarial instrument
issued on this occasion on
23
July
1343
in Wierzbiczany in Cuiavia.
King of Poland
Casimir
the Great swore peace on the crown on his
head while the Grand Master,
Ludolf
König,
by touching his cross.
The two also exchanged a kiss. Another gesture, easier to imagine and
interpret, although still being quite unique, is the one made by the
Grand Master. While remaining in the standing position, he probably
put his right hand on the cross which was placed (sewn on?) on the left
shoulder of his coat. The gesture of the Polish king is far more difficult
to describe and interpret. One can only assume that the crown was
on his head, and the monarch was touching one of its parts probably
with his right palm or fingers. However, it is very likely, in the context
of our knowledge on the manners of oath taking in Central Europe in
the late Middle Ages, that a cross was located (in which maybe even
a particle of the True Cross was placed) at a certain place on the king s
crown and it was this particular part that the monarch was touching
while swearing the oath.
Information of unique value on the aforementioned issues can
be also found in the notarial instrument, issued on
26
May
1389
in
the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The source referred to the
fact that a Swedish diplomat released from a Teutonic prison swore
with his two fingers raised up towards the sun and took an oath not
to seek revenge ( orfey ) , and that in the future neither he nor any
of his friends would do any harm to the Teutonic Order and its sub¬
jects. The formula used here was very rarely encountered in the 14th
century only in Bohemia (two fingers raised towards the sun), or in
some areas of the Reich (fingers, or a palm raised towards the sun),
but only in individual and quite exceptional cases of proceedings un¬
der the jurisdiction of the nobility. No evidence exists to prove that
oaths were sworn in this manner also in the Scandinavian monarchies
or in the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The fact that this
very formula was accepted by both parties is
stül
confusing. A similar
comment might be applicable to swearing the oath on the neck (by
Summary
275
putting one s right palm on it?) that was referred to in a few sources
from Lithuania and the Teutonic State in Prussia and date back to the
first half of the 15th century. The oath s origins have not been recog¬
nised yet. An English chronicler, Matthew Paris, while informing on
the oath taken by king of England, Henry
Ш,
in
1252
at the Westmin¬
ster Abbey, explained that the monarch first touched the Gospel with
his right hand, and subsequently he kissed the book, which was
—
in
the words of the chronicler
—
the custom demonstrated by laypersons.
If this was the case, then it specifically and exclusively pertained to the
situation in late medieval England as we could not find any informa¬
tion in the sources from continental Europe (except for one example
from the early 14th century) that would prove that a kiss placed on the
book, a vestment or
parament
could be an integral part of the oath
being taken. Obviously, a reservation needs to be made as the above
custom was well recognised and widely applied in Eastern Christianity
(Byzantium,
Ruthenia).
However, the stipulation whether the custom
was imported to the British Isles remains doubtful.
Were gestures of oaths taken by the clergy visually different from
those performed by representatives of other social groups? In theory,
as it is assumed in a number of church regulations recognised from
the late 9th century, the clergy should completely refrain from any oath
taking in matters conducted with laypersons.
Practic
а Ду,
however, in
the centuries that followed these regulations were often not respected.
Finally
—
as it is demonstrated by the sources from the 13 th century
onwards
—
the clergy in Western Europe tried to take oaths without
touching the books, paraments and vestments (usually with both
hands crossed on their chests). Vet, exceptions occurred as even bish¬
ops did not always comply with these regulations. However, in Central
Europe, at least since the beginning o£ the 14th century, ordinary clergy
(priests and monks) swore their oaths with their right palm placed on
the book containing the texts of the Gospels, while bishops took their
oaths with their arms crossed over their chests.
Translated by
Ewa Kościałkowska-Okońska
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Duda, Michalina Jóźwiak, Sławomir |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1080035494 (DE-588)1266325522 |
| author_facet | Duda, Michalina Jóźwiak, Sławomir |
| author_role | aut aut |
| author_sort | Duda, Michalina |
| author_variant | m d md s j sj |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV042018883 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)891402105 (DE-599)BVBBV042018883 |
| era | Geschichte 900-1500 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 900-1500 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Europa |
| id | DE-604.BV042018883 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-20T17:00:13Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788324226030 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027460613 |
| oclc_num | 891402105 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-B220 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-B220 |
| physical | 275 S., [4] Bl. Ill. ; 21 cm |
| publishDate | 2014 |
| publishDateSearch | 2014 |
| publishDateSort | 2014 |
| publisher | Towarzystwo Autorów i Wydawców Prac Naukowych Universitas |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | Duda, Michalina Jóźwiak, Sławomir Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) Eid (DE-588)4151150-5 gnd Symbolik (DE-588)4184194-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4151150-5 (DE-588)4184194-3 (DE-588)4015701-5 |
| title | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) |
| title_auth | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) |
| title_exact_search | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) |
| title_full | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) Michalina Duda ; Sławomir Jóźwiak |
| title_fullStr | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) Michalina Duda ; Sławomir Jóźwiak |
| title_full_unstemmed | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) Michalina Duda ; Sławomir Jóźwiak |
| title_short | Ze świata średniowiecznej symboliki |
| title_sort | ze swiata sredniowiecznej symboliki gest i forma przysiegi w chrzescijanskiej europie x xv w |
| title_sub | gest i forma przysięgi w chrześcijańskiej Europie (X - XV w.) |
| topic | Eid (DE-588)4151150-5 gnd Symbolik (DE-588)4184194-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Eid Symbolik Europa |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027460613&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027460613&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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