Sensors and actuators: engineering system instrumentation
Gespeichert in:
| Beteilige Person: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Englisch |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Boca Raton [u.a.]
CRC Press
2016
|
| Ausgabe: | 2. ed. |
| Schlagwörter: | |
| Links: | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027431400&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| Umfang: | XXVII, 819 S. graph. Darst., Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9781466506817 |
Internformat
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| 100 | 1 | |a De Silva, Clarence W. |d 1949- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)1055747842 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Sensors and actuators |b engineering system instrumentation |c Clarence W. de Silva |
| 250 | |a 2. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton [u.a.] |b CRC Press |c 2016 | |
| 300 | |a XXVII, 819 S. |b graph. Darst., Ill. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Actionneurs | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Appareils et instruments scientifiques | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Capteurs | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Commande automatique | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Détecteurs | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Actuators | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Automatic control | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Detectors | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1819263639271505920 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Preface...............................................................................xix
Units and Conversions (Approximate)............................................... xxiii
Acknowledgments.......................................................................xxv
Author..............................................................................xxvii
1 Instrumentation of an Engineering System
Chapter Highlights................................................................1
1.1 Role of Sensors and Actuators................................................1
1.1.1 Importance of Estimation in Sensing..................................3
1.1.2 Innovative Sensor Technologies.......................................4
1.2 Application Scenarios...................................................... 4
1.3 Human Sensory System.........................................................6
1.4 Mechatronic Engineering......................................................7
1.4.1 Mechatronic Approach to Instrumentation..............................8
1.4.2 Bottlenecks for Mechatronic Instrumentation..........................8
1.5 Control System Architectures.................................................9
1.5.1 Feedback and Feedforward Control....................................11
1.5.2 Digital Control.....................................................13
1.5.3 Programmable Logic Controllers......................................14
1.5.3.1 PLC Hardware............................................. 16
1.5.4 Distributed Control.................................................16
1.5.5 Hierarchical Control.............................................. 17
1.6 Instrumentation Process.....................................................18
1.6.1 Instrumentation Steps...............................................19
1.6.2 Application Examples................................................20
1.6.2.1 Networked Application......................................20
1.6.2.2 Telemedicine System........................................22
1.6.2.3 Homecare Robotic System....................................25
1.6.2.4 Water Quality Monitoring...................................26
1.7 Organization of the Book....................................................27
Summary Sheet....................................................................29
Problems.........................................................................31
vi Contents
2 Component Interconnection and Signal Conditioning
Chapter Highlights..................................................................35
2.1 Introduction..................................................................35
2.1.1 Component Interconnection..............................................35
2.1.2 Signal Modification and Conditioning...................................37
2.1.3 Chapter Overview................................................. 37
2.2 Impedance................................................................... 38
i 2.2.1 Definition of Impedance............................................. 38
2.2.2 Importance of Impedance Matching in Component Interconnection..........38
2.3 Impedance Matching Methods.................................................. 39
2.3.1 Maximum Power Transfer............................................... 40
2.3.2 Power Transfer at Maximum Efficiency...................................42
2.3.3 Reflection Prevention in Signal Transmission......................... 42
2.3.4 Loading Reduction.................................................... 44
2.3.4.1 Cascade Connection of Devices................................44
2.3.4.2 Impedance Matching for Loading Reduction.....................48
2.3.5 Impedance Matching in Mechanical Systems........................... 48
2.3.5.1 Vibration Isolation..........................................48
2.3.5.2 Mechanical Transmission.......;..............................55
2.4 Amplifiers....................................................................58
2.4.1 Operational Amplifier..................................................59
2.4.1.1 Differential Input Voltage...................................60
2.4.2 Amplifier Performance Ratings..........................................61
2.4.2.1 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio..................................63
2.4.2.2 Use of Feedback in Op-Amps...................................65
2.4.3 Voltage, Current, and Power Amplifiers.................................65
2.4.4 Instrumentation Amplifiers.............................................68
2.4.4.1 Differential Amplifier.......................................69
2.4.4.2 Instrumentation Amplifier....................................70
2.4.4.3 Common Mode..................................................70
2.4.4.4 Charge Amplifier........................................... 71
2.4.4.5 AC֊Coupled Amplifiers.................................... 72
2.4.5 Noise and Ground Loops.................................................72
2.4.5.1 Ground-Loop Noise........................................ 72
2.5 Analog Filters.............................................................. 73
2.5.1 Passive Filters and Active Filters................................... 76
2.5.1.1 Number of Poles..............................................76
2.5.2 Low-Pass Filters................................................... 76
2.5.2.1 Low-Pass Butterworth Filter..................................79
2.5.3 High-Pass Filters.................................................. 84
2.5.4 Band-Pass Filters.................................................... 86
2.5.4.1 Resonance-Type Band-Pass Filters........................... 87
2.5.5 Band-Reject Filters....................................................90
2.5.6 Digital Filters...................................................... 91
2.5.6.1 Software Implementation and Hardware Implementation..........93
2.6 Modulators and Demodulators................................................. 93
2,6.1 Amplitude Modulation............................................. 96
2.6.1.1 Analog, Discrete, and Digital AM.............................96
2.6.1.2 Modulation Theorem......................................... 96
2.6.L3 Side Frequencies and Sidebands...............................97
Contents Vil
2.6.2 Application of Amplitude Modulation......................................98
2.6.2.1 Fault Detection and Diagnosis................................. 100
2.6.3 Demodulation.............................................................100
2.6.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of AM.............................101
2.6.3.2 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier..............................102
2.6.3.3 Analog AM Hardware..............................................102
2.7 Data Acquisition Hardware........................................................104
2.7.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter..............................................108
2.7.1.1 DAC Operation...................................................109
2.7.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter..............................................113
2.7.2.1 Successive Approximation ADC....................................114
2.7.2.2 Delta-Sigma ADC.................................................115
2.7.2.3 ADC Performance Characteristics.................................116
2.7.3 Sample-and-Hold Hardware.................................................118
2.7.4 Multiplexer..............................................................119
2.7.4.1 Analog Multiplexers.............................................120
2.7.4.2 Digital Multiplexers............................................121
2.8 Bridge Circuits..................................................................122
2.8.1 Wheatstone Bridge...................................................... 123
2.8.2 Constant-Current Bridge..................................................125
2.8.3 Hardware Linearization of Bridge Outputs............................... 127
2.8.3.1 Bridge Amplifiers...............................................127
2.8.4 Half-Bridge Circuits.....................................................128
2.8.5 Impedance Bridges........................................................129
2.8.5.1 Owen Bridge................................................... 130
2.8.5.2 Wien-Bridge Oscillator..........................................131
2.9 Linearizing Devices..............................................................131
2.9.1 Nature of Nonlinearities............................................... 131
2.9.1.1 Linearization Methods......................................... 132
2.9.1.2 Linearization by Software..................................... 133
2.9.1.3 Linearization by Logic Hardware.................................134
2.9.2 Analog Linearizing Hardware..............................................135
2.9.2.1 Offsetting Circuitry............................................136
2.9.2.2 Proportional-Output Hardware....................................137
2.9.2.3 Curve-Shaping Hardware..........................................138
2.10 Miscellaneous Signal-Modification Hardware..................................... 139
2.10.1 Phase Shifters......................................................... 139
2.10.1.1 Applications....................................................140
2.10.1.2 Analog Phase Shift Hardware................................... 140
2.10.1.3 Digital Phase Shifter...........................................141
2.10.2 Voltage-to-Frequency Converters..........................................142
2.10.2.1 Applications................................................ 143
2.10.2.2 VFC Chips.......................................................143
2.10.3 Frequency-to-Voltage Converter...........................................144
2.10.4 Voltage-to-Current Converter........................................... 145
2.10.5 Peak-Hold Circuits..................................................... 146
Summary Sheet................................................................... 147
Problems...............................................................................151
viii
Contents
3 Performance Specification and Instrument Rating Parameters
Chapter Highlights....................................................................167
3.1 Performance Specification........................................................167
3.L1 Parameters for Performance Specification............................... 168
3.1.1.1 Performance Specification in Design and Control................169
3.1.1.2 Perfect Measurement Device.....................................169
3.1.2 Dynamic Reference Models............................................. 170
3.1.2.1 First-Order Model..............................................170
3.1.2.2 Simple Oscillator Model........................................172
3.2 Time-Domain Specifications.......................................................172
3.2.1 Stability and Speed of Response..........................................174
3.3 Frequency-Domain Specifications................................................ 176
3.3.1 Gain Margin and Phase Margin....................................... 178
3.3.2 Simple Oscillator Model in Frequency Domain..............................179
3.4 Linearity........................................................................180
3.4.1 Linearization............................................................183
3.5 Instrument Ratings...............................................................184
3.5.1 Rating Parameters...................................................... 185
3.5.2 Sensitivity..............................................................185
3.5.2.1 Sensitivity in Digital Devices.................................186
3.5.2.2 Sensitivity Error..............................................187
3.5.2.3 Sensitivity Considerations in Control..........................187
3.6 Bandwidth Analysis...............................................................195
3.6.1 Bandwidth.............................................................. 195
3.6.1.1 Transmission Level of a Band-Pass Filter.......................196
3.6.1.2 Effective Noise Bandwidth......................................196
3.6.1.3 Half-Power (or 3 dB) Bandwidth............................196
3.6.1.4 Fourier Analysis Bandwidth.....................................197
3.6.1.5 Useful Frequency Range.........................................198
3.6.1.6 Instrument Bandwidth...........................................198
3.6.1.7 Control Bandwidth..............................................198
3.6.2 Static Gain..............................................................200
3.7 Aliasing Distortion Due to Signal Sampling................................... 201
3.7.1 Sampling Theorem..................................................... 202
3.7.2 Another Illustration of Aliasing.........................................202
3.7.3 Antialiasing Filter.................................................. 203
3.7.4 Bandwidth Design of a Control System.....................................207
3.7.4.1 Comment about Control Cycle Time...............................208
3.8 Instrument Error Considerations..................................................209
3.8.1 Error Representation................................................... 209
3.8.1.1 Instrument Accuracy and Measurement Accuracy...................210
3.8.1.2 Accuracy and Precision....................................... 210
3.9 Error Propagation and Combination.............................................. 211
3.9.1 Application of Sensitivity in Error Combination..........................212
3.9.2 Absolute Error...........................................................213
3.9.3 SRSS Error..........................*....................................213
3.9.4 Equal Contributions from Individual Errors...............................214
Summary Sheet................................................................... ....219
Problems............................................................................ 223
Contents Іх
4 Estimation from Measurements
Chapter Highlights.....................................*...........................235
4.1 Sensing and Estimation.........................................................235
4.2 Least-Squares Estimation.......................................................237
4.2.1 Least-Squares Point Estimate...........................................237
4.2.2 Randomness in Data and Estimate........................................238
4.2.2.1 Model Randomness and Measurement Randomness...................239
4.2.3 Least-Squares Line Estimate............................................241
4.2.4 Quality of Estimate.................................................. 243
4.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation.............................................. 246
4.3.1 Analytical Basis of MLE................................................247
4.3.2 Justification of MLE through Bayes’ Theorem.......................... 248
4.3.3 MLE with Normal Distribution......................................... 248
4.3.4 Recursive Maximum Likelihood Estimation................................250
4.3.4.1 Recursive Gaussian Maximum Likelihood Estimation..............250
4.3.5 Discrete MLE Example...................................................252
4.4 Scalar Static Kalman Filter.................................................. 252
4.4.1 Concepts of Scalar Static Kalman Filter................................253
4.4.2 Use of Bayes’ Formula..................................................254
4.4.3 Algorithm of Scalar Static Kalman Filter...............................256
4.5 Linear Multivariable Dynamic Kalman Filter.....................................261
4.5.1 State-Space Model......................................................262
4.5.2 System Response........................................................264
4.5.3 Controllability and Observability......................................265
4.5.4 Discrete-Time State-Space Model........................................266
4.5.5 Linear Kalman Filter Algorithm........................................267
4.5.5.1 Initial Values of Recursion...................................268
4.6 Extended Kalman Filter....................................................... 271
4.6.1 Extended Kalman Filter Algorithm.......................................271
4.7 Unscented Kalman Filter........................................................275
4.7.1 Unscented Transformation...............................................276
4.7.1.1 Generation of Sigma-Point Vectors and Weights.................276
4.7.1.2 Computation of Output Statistics..............................278
4.7.2 Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm......................................278
Summary Sheet................................................................... 283
Problems.....................................1.....................................288
5 Analog Sensors and Transducers
Chapter Highlights..................................................................297
5.1 Sensors and Transducers.......................................................297
5.1.1 Terminology............................................................298
5.1.1.1 Measurand and Measurement.....................................298
5.1.1.2 Sensor and Transducer....................................... 298
5.1.13 Analog and Digital Sensor-Transducer Devices..................299
5.1.1.4 Sensor Signal Conditioning....................................299
5.1.1.5 Pure, Passive, and Active Devices.............................300
5.1.2 Sensor Types and Selection........................................... 300
5.1.2.1 Sensor Classification Based on the Measurand..................300
5.1.2.2 Sensor Classification Based on Sensor Technology..............301
5.1.2.3 Sensor Selection..............................................301
302
302
303
303
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346
346
347
Sensors for Electromechanical Applications...........................
5.2.1 Motion Transducers............................................
5.2.1.1 Multipurpose Sensing Elements........................
5.2.1.2 Motion Transducer Selection .......................-
5.2.2 Effort Sensors................................................
5.2.2.1 Force Sensors for Motion Measurement...............
5.2.2.2 Force Sensor Location..............................
Potentiometer.......................................................
5.3.1 Rotatory Potentiometers.......................................
5.3.1.1 Loading Nonlinearity.................................
5.3.2 Performance Considerations..................................
5.3.2.1 Potentiometer Ratings..............................
5.3.2.2 Resolution...........................................
5.3.2.3 Sensitivity..........................................
5.3.3 Optical Potentiometer.........................................
5.3.3.1 Digital Potentiometer................................
Variable-Inductance Transducers.....................................
5.4.1 Inductance, Reactance, and Reluctance.......................
5.4.2 Linear-Variable Differential Transformer/Transducer.........
5.4.2.1 Calibration and Compensation.........................
5.4.2.2 Phase Shift and Null Voltage.........................
5.4.2.3 Signal Conditioning..................................
5.4.2.4 Rotatory-Variable Differential Transformer/Transducer,
5.4.3 Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor.............................
5.4.4 Resolver....................................................
5.4.4.1 Demodulation.........................................
5.4.4.2 Resolver with Rotor Output.........................
5.4.4.3 Self-Induction Transducers...........................
Permanent-Magnet and Eddy Current Transducers.........................
5.5.1 DC Tachometer.................................................
5.5.1.1 Electronic Commutation...............................
5.5.1.2 Modeling of a DC Tachometer..........................
5.5.1.3 Design Considerations..............................
5.5.1.4 Loading Considerations.............................
5.5.2 AC Tachometer.................................................
5.5.2.1 Permanent-Magnet AC Tachometer.......................
5.5.2.2 AC Induction Tachometer..............................
5.5.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of AC Tachometers.....
5.5.3 Eddy Current Transducers......................................
Variable-Capacitance Transducers....................................
5.6.1 Capacitive-Sensing Circuits...................................
5.6.1.1 Capacitance Bridge.................................
5.6.1.2 Potentiometer Circuit................................
5.6.1.3 Charge Amplifier Circuit.............................
5.6.1.4 LC Oscillator Circuit................................
5.6.2 Capacitive Displacement Sensor..!...........................
5.6.3 Capacitive Rotation and Angular Velocity Sensors..............
5.6.4 Capacitive Liquid Level Sensor..............................
5.6.4.1 Permittivity of Dielectric Medium..................
Contents xi
5.6.5 Applications of Capacitive Sensors.......................................348
5.6.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages...................................348
5.6.5.2 Applications of Capacitive Sensors.............................348
5.7 Piezoelectric Sensors.......................................................... 349
5.7.1 Charge Sensitivity and Voltage Sensitivity...............................350
5.7.2 Charge Amplifier..................................................... 352
5.7.3 Piezoelectric Accelerometer..............................................354
5.7.3.1 Piezoelectric Accelerometer....................................355
5.8 Strain Gauges....................................................................357
5.8.1 Equations for Strain-Gauge Measurements................................ 357
5.8.1.1 Bridge Sensitivity.............................................360
5.8.1.2 Bridge Constant................................................361
5.8.1.3 Calibration Constant...........................................362
5.8.1.4 Data Acquisition...............................................365
5.8.1.5 Accuracy Considerations........................................365
5.8.2 Semiconductor Strain Gauges..............................................366
5.8.3 Automatic (Self-)Compensation for Temperature............................369
5.9 Torque Sensors...................................................................371
5.9.1 Strain-Gauge Torque Sensors..............................................372
5.9.2 Design Considerations....................................................374
5.9.2.1 Strain Capacity of the Gauge...................................377
5.9.2.2 Strain-Gauge Nonlinearity Limit................................377
5.9.2.3 Sensitivity Requirement........................................378
5.9.2.4 Stiffness Requirement..........................................378
5.9.3 Deflection Torque Sensors................................................383
5.9.3.1 Direct-Deflection Torque Sensor................................384
5.9.3.2 Variable-Reluctance Torque Sensor..............................384
5.9.3.3 Magnetostriction Torque Sensor.................................386
5.9.4 Reaction Torque Sensors..................................................386
5.9.5 Motor Current Torque Sensors.............................................388
5.9.5.1 DC Motors......................................................388
5.9.5.2 AC Motors......................................................388
5.9.6 Force Sensors............................................................390
5.10 Gyroscopic Sensors...............................................................392
5.10.1 Rate Gyro.............................................................. 392
5.10.2 Coriolis Force Devices...................................................392
5.11 Thermo-Fluid Sensors.............................................................393
5.11.1 Pressure Sensors.........................................................394
5.11.2 Flow Sensors.............................................................395
5.11.3 Temperature Sensors......................................................397
5.11.3.1 Thermocouple...................................................397
5.11.3.2 Resistance Temperature Detector................................398
5.11.3.3 Thermistor.....................................................399
5.11.3.4 Bimetal Strip Thermometer......................................399
5.11.3.5 Resonant Temperature Sensors...................................399
Summary Sheet.........................................................................400
Problems..............................................................................407
xii Contents
6 Digital and Innovative Sensing
Chapter Highlights....................................................................427
6.1 Innovative Sensor Technologies..................................................427
6.1.1 Analog versus Digital Sensing............................................428
6.1.1.1 Analog Sensing Method: Potentiometer with 3-Bit ADC............429
62.1.2 Digital Sensing Method: Eight Limit Switches....................429
6.1.2 Advantages of Digital Transducers...................................... 429
6.2 Shaft Encoders............................................................. 430
6.2.1 Encoder Types.......................................................... 431
6.22.1 Incremental Encoder.............................................431
6.22.2 Absolute Encoder.............................................. 431
6.2.1.3 Optical Encoder.................................................432
6.22.4 Sliding Contact Encoder.........................................433
6.22.5 Magnetic Encoder.............................................. 433
6.22.6 Proximity Sensor Encoder.„.....................................433
6.22.7 Direction Sensing...............................................434
6.3 Incremental Optical Encoder.................................................... 434
6.32 Direction of Rotation.......................................................435
6.3.2 Encoder Hardware Features.............................................. 437
6.3.22 Signal Conditioning.............................................438
6.3.3 Linear Encoders..........................................................438
6.4 Motion Sensing by Encoder...................................................... 439
6.4.1 Displacement Measurement................................................439
6.4.12 Digital Resolution............................................ 440
6.42.2 Physical Resolution........................................... 440
6.4.1.3 Step-Up Gearing.................................................442
6.4.1.4 Interpolation...................................................443
6.4.2 Velocity Measurement.....................................................443
6.4.2.1 Velocity Resolution............................................444
6.4.2.2 Velocity with Step-Up Gearing..................................446
6.4.2.3 Velocity Resolution with Step-Up Gearing........................447
6.5 Encoder Data Acquisition and Processing..........................................447
6.5.1 Data Acquisition Using a Microcontroller.................................447
6.5.2 Data Acquisition Using a Desktop Computer................................449
6.6 Absolute Optical Encoders........................................................451
6.62 Gray Coding............................................................. 451
6.622 Code Conversion Logic...........................................452
6.6.2 Resolution............................................................. 453
6.6.3 Velocity Measurement................................................... 454
6.6.4 Advantages and Drawbacks.................................................454
6.7 Encoder Error.................................................................. 454
6.72 Eccentricity Error..........................................................455
6.8 Miscellaneous Digital Transducers.............................................. 459
6.82 Binary Transducers........................................................ 459
6.8.2 Digital Resolvers.............:.........................................462
6.8.3 Digital Tachometers................................................ 463
6.8.4 Moiré Fringe Displacement Sensors.................................... 464
6.9 Optical Sensors, Lasers, and Cameras......................................... 467
6.92 Fiber-Optic Position Sensor.................................................467
Contents
xiii
6.9.2 Laser Interferometer.....................................................468
6.9.3 Fiber-Optic Gyroscope....................................................469
6.9.4 Laser Doppler Interferometer........................................... 470
6.9.5 Light Sensors............................................................471
6.9.5.1 Photoresistor...................................................472
6.9.5.2 Photodiode.................................................... 473
6.9.5.3 Phototransistor.................................................473
6.9.5.4 Photo-FET.......................................................474
6.9.5.5 Photocell.......................................................474
6.95.6 Charge-Coupled Device...........................................474
6.9.6 Image Sensors............................................................475
6.9.6.1 Image Processing and Computer Vision.......................... 475
63.6.2 Image-Based Sensory System......................................475
6.9.6.3 Camera..........................................................476
6.9.6 A Image Frame Acquisition.........................................477
6.9.6.5 Color Images....................................................477
63.6.6 Image Processing................................................477
6.9.6.7 Some Applications...............................................477
6.10 Miscellaneous Sensor Technologies................................................478
6.10.1 Hall-Effect Sensor.......................................................478
6.10.1.1 Hall-Effect Motion Sensors......................................478
6.10.1.2 Properties......................................................479
6.10.2 Ultrasonic Sensors.......................................................480
6.10.3 Magnetostrictive Displacement Sensor.....................................481
6.10.4 Impedance Sensing and Control............................................481
6.11 Tactile Sensing................................................................ 485
6.11.1 Tactile Sensor Requirements..............................................485
6.11.1.1 Dexterity.......................................................486
6.11.2 Construction and Operation of Tactile Sensors............................486
6.11.3 Optical Tactile Sensors..................................................488
6.11.4 A Strain-Gauge Tactile Sensor............................................489
6.11.5 Other Types of Tactile Sensors...........................................491
6.12 MEMS Sensors................................................................... 492
6.12.1 Advantages of MEMS.......................................................492
6.12.1.1 Special Considerations........................................ 492
6.12.1.2 Rating Parameters......;.......................................493
6.12.2 MEMS Sensor Modeling.....................................................493
6.12.2.1 Energy Conversion Mechanism................................... 493
6.12.3 Applications of MEMS.....................................................494
6.12.4 MEMS Materials and Fabrication...........................................494
6.12.4.1 IC Fabrication Process..........................................495
6.12.4.2 MEMS Fabrication Processes......................................495
6.12.5 MEMS Sensor Examples.....................................................496
6.13 Sensor Fusion....................................................................497
6.13.1 Nature and Types of Fusion...............................................498
6.13.1.1 Fusion Architectures............................................498
6.13.2 Sensor Fusion Applications...............................................499
6.13.2.1 Enabling Technologies...........................................501
6.13.3 Approaches of Sensor Fusion..............................................501
6.13.3.1 Bayesian Approach to Sensor Fusion..............................501
XIV
Contents
6.13.3.2 Continuous Gaussian Problem...................................503
6.13.3.3 Sensor Fusion Using Kalman Filter.............................506
6.13.3.4 Sensor Fusion Using Neural Networks...........................506
6.14 Wireless Sensor Networks.......................................................508
6.14.1 WSN Architecture.......................................................509
6.14.1.1 Sensor Node...................................................509
6.14.1.2 WSN Topologies................................................510
6.14.1.3 Operating System of WSN.......................................510
6.14.2 Advantages and Issues of WSNs..........................................512
j 6.14.2.1 Key Issues of WSN.............................................512
6.14.2.2 Engineering Challenges........................................513
6.14.2.3 Power Issues..................................................513
6.14.2.4 Power Management..............................................513
6.14.3 Communication Issues...................................................514
6.14.3.1 Communication Protocol of WSN.................................514
6.14.3.2 Routing of Communication in WSN...............................515
6.14.3.3 WSN Standards.................................................515
6.14.3.4 Other Software of WSN.........................................516
6.14.4 Localization......................................................... 516
6.14.4.1 Methods of Localization.......................................516
6.14.4.2 Localization by Multilateration...............................516
6.14.4.3 Distance Measurement Using Radio Signal Strength..............518
6.14.5 WSN Applications.......................................................519
6.14.5.1 Medical and Assisted Living...................................520
6.14.5.2 Structural Health Monitoring................................ 520
Summary Sheet.......................................................................520
Problems.......................................................................... 529
Reference...........................................................................540
7 Mechanical Transmission Components
Chapter Highlights..................................................................541
7.1 Actuator-Load Matching....................................................... 541
7.2 Mechanical Components........................................................ 542
7.2.1 Transmission Components................................................543
7.3 Lead Screw and Nut......................................................... 545
7.3.1 Positioning {x֊y) Tables............................................. 548
7.3.2 Analogy with Gear System...............................................550
7.4 Harmonic Drives............................................................ 550
7.4.1 Pin-Slot Transmission..................................................552
7.4.2 Other Designs of Harmonic Drive........................................552
7.4.3 Friction Drives........................................................554
7.5 Continuously Variable Transmission.............................................556
7.5.1 Principle of Operation of an Innovative CVT............................556
7.5.2 Two-Slider CVT.........................................................558
7.5.3 Three-Slider CVT.......................................................560
7.6 Load Matching for Actuators....................................................561
7.6.1 Inertial Matching for Maximum Acceleration.............................562
7.6.2 Actuator and Load Modeling.............................................563
Summary Sheet.......................................................................567
Problems............................................................................568
Contents
XV
8 Stepper Motors
Chapter Highlights..................................................................575
8.1 Principle of Operation.........................................................575
8.1.1 Introduction...........................................................575
8.1.2 Terminology............................................................576
8.1.3 Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motor..........................................576
8.1.4 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor.......................................580
8.1.5 Polarity Reversal.......................................................580
8.1.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages...................................581
8.2 Stepper Motor Classification...................................................582
8.2.1 Single-Stack Stepper Motors.............................................583
8.2.2 Toothed-Pole Construction...............................................587
8.2.2.1 Advantages of Toothed Construction.............................587
8.2.2.2 Governing Equations........................................... 588
8.2.3 Another Toothed Construction............................................590
8.2.4 Microstepping......................................................... 592
8.2.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages...................................593
8.2.5 Multiple-Stack Stepper Motors...........................................593
8.2.5.1 Equal-Pitch Multiple-Stack Stepper.............................594
8.2.5.2 Unequal-Pitch Multiple-Stack Stepper...........................595
8.2.6 Hybrid Stepper Motor....................................................595
8.3 Driver and Controller..........................................................597
8.3.1 Driver Hardware.........................................................599
8.3.2 Motor Time Constant and Torque Degradation..............................600
8.4 Torque Motion Characteristics..................................................602
8.4.1 Single-Pulse Response...................................................602
8.4.2 Response to a Pulse Sequence............................................605
8.4.3 Slewing Motion..........................................................605
8.4.4 Ramping.................................................................606
8.4.5 Transient Motion........................................................607
8.5 Static Position Error........................................................ 608
8.6 Damping of Stepper Motors......................................................609
8.6.1 Approaches of Damping................................................. 610
8.6.1.1 ’ Mechanical Damping.......................................... 610
8.6.1.2 Electronic Damping.............................................613
8.6.1.3 Multiple-Phase Energization.................................. 615
8.7 Stepper Motor Models...........................................................616
8.7.1 Simplified Model........................................................616
8.7.2 Improved Model..........................................................617
8.7.2.1 Torque Equation for PM and HB Motors...........................619
8.7.2.2 Torque Equation for VR Motors..................................619
8.8 Control of Stepper Motors......................................................619
8.8.1 Pulse Missing...........................................................619
8.8.2 Feedback Control........................................................621
8.8.2.1 Feedback Encoder-Driven Stepper Motor..........................622
8.8.3 Torque Control through Switching........................................623
8.8.4 Model-Based Feedback Control............................................624
xvi Contents
8.9 Stepper Motor Selection and Applications.......................................624
8.9.1 Torque-Speed Characteristics and Terminology...........................625
8.9.1.1 Residual Torque and Detent Torque.............................626
8.9.1.2 Holding Torque.............................................. 626
8.9.1.3 Pull-Out Curve or Slew Curve................................ 626
8.9.1.4 Pull-In Curve or Start-Stop Curve.............................626
8.9.2 Stepper Motor Selection................................................627
8.9.2.1 Parameters of Motor Selection.................................628
8.9.3 Stepper Motor Applications and Advantages............................ 633
8.9.3.1 Applications................................................ 633
8.9.3.2 Advantages....................................................634
Summary Sheet..................................................................... 634
Problems............................................................................636
9 Continuous-Drive Actuators
Chapter Highlights..................................................................653
9.1 Introduction................................................................. 653
9.1.1 Actuator Classification................................................653
9.1.2 Actuator Requirements and Applications.................................654
9.2 DC Motors......................................................................654
9.2.1 Principle of Operation............................................... 655
9.2.2 Rotor and Stator.......................................................656
9.2.3 Commutation............................................................657
9.2.4 Static Torque Characteristics..........................................657
9.2.5 Brushless DC Motors.................................................. 659
9.2.5.1 Disadvantages of Slip-Rings and Brushes.......................659
9.2.5.2 Permanent-Magnet Motors.......................................660
9.2.5.3 Brushless Commutation.........................................660
9.2.5.4 Constant-Speed Operation......................................661
9.2.5.5 Transient Operation......................................... 661
9.2.5.6 Advantages and Applications...................................662
9.2.6 Torque Motors..........................................................663
9.2.6.1 Direct-Drive Operation...................................... 663
9.2.6.2 Brushless Torque Motors.......................................663
9.2.6.3 AC Torque Motors..............................................664
9.3 DC Motor Equations.............................................................664
9.3.1 Assumptions............................................................666
9.3.2 Steady-State Characteristics......................................... 666
9.3.3 Bearing Friction.......................................................667
9.3.4 Output Power......................................................... 668
9.3.5 Combined Excitation of Motor Windings..................................669
9.3.6 Speed Regulation..................................................... 670
9.3.7 Experimental Model.....................................................673
9.3.7.1 Electrical Damping Constant...................................673
9.3.7.2 Linearized Experimental Model.................................674
9.4 Control of DC Motors..................................................... 677
9.4.1 Armature Control and Field Control.....................................677
9.4.2 DC Servomotors.........................................................678
9.4.2.1 Need for Feedback.............................................678
9.4.2.2 Servomotor Control System.....................................678
Contents xvii
9.4.3 Armature Control........................................................679
9.4.3.1 Motor Time Constants...........................................680
9.4.3.2 Motor Parameter Measurement.................................. 682
9.4.4 Field Control...........................................................687
9.4.5 Feedback Control of DC Motors...........................................688
9.4.5.1 Velocity Feedback Control......................................688
9.4.5.2 Position Plus Velocity Feedback Control........................688
9.4.5.3 Position Feedback with PID Control.............................689
9.4.6 Phase-Locked Control....................................................691
9.4.6.1 Phase Difference Sensing.......................................691
9.5 Motor Driver and Feedback Control..............................................692
9.5.1 Interface Card..........................................................693
9.5.2 Driver Hardware.........................................................693
9.5.3 Pulse-Width Modulation..................................................694
9.5.3.1 Duty Cycle................................................... 695
9.6 DC Motor Selection.............................................................696
9.6.1 Applications.......................................................... 696
9.6.2 Motor Data and Specifications...........................................696
9.6.3 Selection Considerations.............................................. 697
9.6.4 Motor Sizing Procedure................................................ 699
9.6.4.1 Inertia Matching...............................................699
9.6.4.2 Drive Amplifier Selection......................................700
9.7 Induction Motors...............................................................701
9.7.1 Advantages.......................................................... 702
9.7.2 Disadvantages...........................................................702
9.7.3 Rotating Magnetic Field.................................................702
9.7.4 Induction Motor Characteristics.........................................705
9.7.5 Torque-Speed Relationship...............................................707
9.8 Induction Motor Control........................................................710
9.8.1 Motor Driver and Controller.............................................711
9.8.2 Control Schemes.........................................................712
9.8.3 Excitation Frequency Control............................................712
9.8.4 Voltage Control....................................................... 714
9.8.5 Voltage/Frequency Control...............................................716
9.8.6 Field Feedback Control (Flux Vector Drive)..............................716
9.8.7 Transfer-Function Model for an Induction Motor..........................717
9.8.8 Induction Torque Motors.................................................722
9.8.9 Single-Phase AC Motors................................................ 722
9.9 Synchronous Motors.............................................................724
9.9.1 Operating Principle.....................................................724
9.9.2 Starting a Synchronous Motor............................................725
9.9.3 Control of a Synchronous Motor..........................................725
9.10 Linear Actuators........................................................... 725
9.10.1 Solenoid.............................................................. 726
9.10.2 Linear Motors...........................................................727
9.11 Hydraulic Actuators............................................................728
9.11.1 Advantages of Hydraulic Actuators.......................................728
9.11.2 Disadvantages....................................................... 729
9.11.3 Applications.......................................................... 729
9.11.4 Components of a Hydraulic Control System................................729
xviii Contents
9.11.5 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors..........................................731
9.11.6 Hydraulic Valves.................................................. 733
9.11.6.1 Spool Valve................................................734
9.11.6.2 Steady-State Valve Characteristics....................... 736
9.11.7 Hydraulic Primary Actuators.........................................738
9.11.8 Load Equation.......................................................740
9.12 Hydraulic Control Systems................................................. 741
9.12.1 Need for Feedback Control......................................... 747
9.12.1.1 Three-Term Control.........................................748
9.12.1.2 Advanced Control......................................... 751
9.12.2 Constant-Flow Systems...............................................751
9.12.3 Pump-Controlled Hydraulic Actuators....,............................752
9.12.4 Hydraulic Accumulators..............................................752
9.12.5 Hydraulic Circuits................................................ 753
9.13 Pneumatic Control Systems...................................................754
9.13.1 Flapper Valves......................................................754
9.13.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Stages.....................756
9.14 Fluidics.................................................................. 757
9.14.1 Fluidic Components..................................................758
9.14.1.1 Logic Components......................................... 758
9.14.1.2 Fluidic Motion Sensors.....................................759
9.14.1.3 Fluidic Amplifiers....................................... 760
9.14.2 Fluidic Control Systems.............................................760
9.14.2.1 Interfacing Considerations............................... 761
9.14.2.2 Modular Laminated Construction.............................761
9.14.3 Applications of Fluidics............................................761
Summary Sheet.................................................................. 762
Problems.........................................................................765
Appendix A: Probability and Statistics................................................779
Appendix B: Reliability Considerations for Multicomponent Devices.....................789
Appendix C: Answers to Numerical Problems......................................... 797
Index............................................................................... 801
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | De Silva, Clarence W. 1949- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1055747842 |
| author_facet | De Silva, Clarence W. 1949- |
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| callnumber-label | TJ213 |
| callnumber-raw | TJ213 |
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| callnumber-subject | TJ - Mechanical Engineering and Machinery |
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| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)911209256 (DE-599)BVBBV041989135 |
| dewey-full | 670.42/7 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
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| dewey-sort | 3670.42 17 |
| dewey-tens | 670 - Manufacturing |
| discipline | Werkstoffwissenschaften / Fertigungstechnik Mess-/Steuerungs-/Regelungs-/Automatisierungstechnik / Mechatronik |
| edition | 2. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV041989135 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-12-20T16:59:33Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781466506817 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027431400 |
| oclc_num | 911209256 |
| open_access_boolean | |
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| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-862 DE-BY-FWS DE-1050 DE-573 DE-83 DE-898 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | XXVII, 819 S. graph. Darst., Ill. |
| publishDate | 2016 |
| publishDateSearch | 2016 |
| publishDateSort | 2016 |
| publisher | CRC Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spellingShingle | De Silva, Clarence W. 1949- Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation Actionneurs Appareils et instruments scientifiques Capteurs Commande automatique Détecteurs Actuators Automatic control Detectors Stellglied (DE-588)4183090-8 gnd Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd Regelungstechnik (DE-588)4076594-5 gnd Aktor (DE-588)4198914-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4183090-8 (DE-588)4038824-4 (DE-588)4076594-5 (DE-588)4198914-4 |
| title | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation |
| title_auth | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation |
| title_exact_search | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation |
| title_full | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation Clarence W. de Silva |
| title_fullStr | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation Clarence W. de Silva |
| title_full_unstemmed | Sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation Clarence W. de Silva |
| title_short | Sensors and actuators |
| title_sort | sensors and actuators engineering system instrumentation |
| title_sub | engineering system instrumentation |
| topic | Actionneurs Appareils et instruments scientifiques Capteurs Commande automatique Détecteurs Actuators Automatic control Detectors Stellglied (DE-588)4183090-8 gnd Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd Regelungstechnik (DE-588)4076594-5 gnd Aktor (DE-588)4198914-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Actionneurs Appareils et instruments scientifiques Capteurs Commande automatique Détecteurs Actuators Automatic control Detectors Stellglied Sensor Regelungstechnik Aktor |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027431400&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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