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Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Beteilige Person:	Hau, Erich 1941- (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	Berlin [u.a.] Springer 2013
Ausgabe:	3., transl. ed.
Schlagwörter:	Windkraftwerk Windenergie Windturbine
Links:	http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=3909270&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025391259&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
Umfang:	XVIII, 879 S. 552 schw.-w. Ill. 235 mm x 155 mm
ISBN:	9783642271502

Internformat

MARC


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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	CONTENTS 1 WINDMILLS AND WINDWHEELS 1 1.1 THE ORIGINS OF WINDMILLS 1 1.2 EUROPEAN WINDMILLS 4 1.3 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL WINDMILLS 11 1.4 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT OF WINDMILLS 13 1.5 THE AMERICAN WIND TURBINE 17 REFERENCES 21 2 ELECTRICAL POWER FROM THE WIND - THE FIRST ATTEMPTS 23 2.1 POUL LA COUR - A PIONEER IN DENMARK 23 2.2 LARGE WIND POWER PLANTS - AMBITIOUS PROJECTS IN GERMANY 28 2.3 1250 KW FROM THE WIND - THE FIRST LARGE WIND TURBINE IN THE US 33 2.4 WIND TURBINES IN THE FIFTIES - BEFORE THE ENERGY CRISIS 36 2.5 AFTER THE ENERGY CRISIS - A NEW START TOWARD MODERN WIND POWER 43 2.6 THE LARGE EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES OF THE EIGHTIES 46 2.7 FIRST SUCCESSES WITH THE SMALL WIND TURBINES IN DENMARK 57 2.8 THE WIND FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES 58 REFERENCES 63 3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF WIND ENERGY CONVERTERS 65 3.1 ROTORS WITH A VERTICAL AXIS OF ROTATION 66 3.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS ROTORS 69 3.3 WIND ENERGY CONCENTRATORS 72 3.4 TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS 77 REFERENCES 78 4 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION 79 4.1 BETZ S ELEMENTARY MOMENTUM THEORY 79 4.2 WIND ENERGY CONVERTERS USING AERODYNAMIC DRAG OR LIFT 84 REFERENCES 87 5 ROTOR AERODYNAMICS 89 5.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND CALCULATIONS 90 5.1.1 BLADE ELEMENT THEORY 91 5.1.2 VORTEX MODEL OF ROTOR FLOW 96 HTTP://D-NB.INFO/1017013640 VIII CONTENTS 5.1.3 NUMERIC FLOW SIMULATION 97 5.1.4 THE ROTOR WAKE ! 99 5.2 ROTOR POWER CHARACTERISTICS 102 5.2.1 POWER AND TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS 102 5.2.2 POWER CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS ROTOR CONFIGURATIONS 104 5.3 AERODYNAMIC POWER CONTROL 106 5.3.1 POWER CONTROL BY ROTOR BLADE PITCHING 107 5.3.2 PASSIVE STALL CONTROL WITH FIXED BLADE PITCH 111 5.3.3 ACTIVE STALL CONTROL 115 5.3.4 TRANSIENT AERODYNAMIC EFFECTS AND BOUNDARY-LAYER CONTROL 117 5.3.5 TURNING THE ROTOR OUT OF THE WIND 119 5.4 THE AERODYNAMIC AIRFOIL 120 5.4.1 CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES 120 5.4.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CLASSIFICATION 123 5.4.3 LAMINAR AIRFOILS 128 5.4.4 INFLUENCE ON THE POWER COEFFICIENT OF THE ROTOR 132 5.5 ROTOR-DESIGN FEATURES AND POWER CHARACTERISTICS 134 5.5.1 NUMBER OF ROTOR BLADES 135 5.5.2 OPTIMUM SHAPE OF THE ROTOR BLADES 136 5.5.3 ROTOR BLADE TWIST 143 5.5.4 BLADE THICKNESS 145 5.5.5 DESIGN TIP-SPEED RATIO OF THE ROTOR 146 5.6 EXISTING ROTOR BLADE DESIGNS 148 5.7 YAW CONTROL OF THE ROTOR 152 5.8 AERODYNAMICS OF VERTICAL-AXIS ROTORS 156 5.9 EXPERIMENTAL ROTOR AERODYNAMICS 160 5.9.1 MEASUREMENTS ON MODELS IN THE WIND TUNNEL 160 5.9.2 MEASUREMENTS ON SITE 163 REFERENCES 164 6 LOADS AND STRUCTURAL STRESSES 167 6.1 LOADS ON THE WIND TURBINE 168 6.2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TERMINOLOGY 170 6.3 SOURCES OF LOADING 171 6.3.1 GRAVITY AND INERTIAL LOADS 172 6.3.2 UNIFORM AND STEADY-STATE AIR FLOW 173 6.3.3 VERTICAL WIND SHEAR AND CROSS WINDS 177 6.3.4 CROSS WIND ON THE ROTOR 178 6.3.5 TOWER INTERFERENCE 179 6.3.6 WIND TURBULENCE AND GUSTS 183 6.4 DESIGN LOAD ASSUMPTIONS 187 6.4.1 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL DESIGN STANDARDS 188 6.4.2 IEC CLASSES OF WIND TURBINES AND GERMAN WIND ZONES 191 6.4.3 NORMAL WIND CONDITIONS 193 CONTENTS IX 6.4.4 EXTREME WIND CONDITIONS 194 6.4.5 OTHER CLIMATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES 195 6.4.6 OTHER EXTERNAL CONDITIONS 197 6.4.7 SAFETY FACTORS 198 6.5 OPERATIONAL STATUS AND LOAD CASES 199 6.5.1 NORMAL OPERATION 199 6.5.2 TECHNICAL FAULTS 201 6.6 STRUCTURAL STRESSES IN THE WIND TURBINE 203 6.6.1 KIND OF STRESSING 203 6.6.2 LOAD SPECTRA 205 6.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS 208 6.7.1 FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL MODELLING OF THE WIND TURBINE 208 6.7.2 REPRESENTATION OF THE WIND TURBULENCE 209 6.7.3 ANALYTICAL APPROACHES AND NUMERICAL COMPUTER CODES 213 6.8 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FEATURES AND STRUCTURAL STRESSES 215 6.8.1 NUMBER OF ROTOR BLADES 215 6.8.2 ROTOR HUB HINGES IN TWO-BLADE ROTORS 217 6.8.3 STIFFNESS OF THE ROTOR BLADES 220 6.8.4 POWER CONTROL SYSTEM 221 6.8.5 ROTOR SPEED FLEXIBILITY AND VARIABLE-SPEED OPERATION 223 6.9 MEASURING THE STRUCTURAL STRESSES 226 6.9.1 ROTOR BLADE TESTING 227 6.9.2 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS AND FIELD MEASUREMENTS 228 REFERENCES 230 7 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS 233 7.1 EXCITING FORCES AND VIBRATIONAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM 234 7.2 AEROELASTIC STABILITY OF ROTOR BLADES 236 7.2.1 STATIC DIVERGENCE 236 7.2.2 NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND VIBRATION MODES 237 7.2.3 TYPICAL ROTOR BLADE VIBRATIONS 239 7.3 TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF THE DRIVE TRAIN 242 7.3.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL 242 7.3.2 EQUIVALENT MECHANICAL MODELS FOR THE ELECTRICAL GRID COUPLING 246 7.3.3 NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND VIBRATION MODES 247 7.3.4 EXCITATIONS AND RESONANCES 249 7.4 DYNAMICS OF THE YAW SYSTEM 252 7.4.1 MODELLING AND MOMENTS AROUND THE YAW AXIS 252 7.4.2 EXCITATION AND RESONANCES 254 7.5 VIBRATION OF THE WHOLE WIND TURBINE 256 7.5.1 TOWER STIFFNESS 256 7.5.2 VIBRATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTING WIND TURBINES 258 7.6 MATHEMATICAL SIMULATION 264 REFERENCES 267 X CONTENTS 8 ROTOR BLADES 269 8.1 MATERIALS 270 8.2 AIRCRAFT WINGS AS MODEL 272 8.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS OF ROTOR BLADES IN THE PAST 274 8.3.1 REVITED ALUMINIUM CONSTRUCTION 275 8.3.2 STEEL DESIGNS 277 8.3.3 TRADITIONAL WOOD CONSTRUCTION 280 8.3.4 PREVIOUS DESIGNS WITH FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 281 8.3.5 WOOD/EPOXY COMPOSITES 286 8.4 MODERN FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE BLADES 287 8.4.1 FIBRE COMPOSITES TECHNOLOGY 287 8.4.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF THE ROTOR BLADES 289 8.4.3 MANUFACTURING METHODS 290 8.5 BLADE CONNECTION TO THE ROTOR HUB 293 8.6 COMPARISON OF ROTOR BLADE DESIGNS 296 8.7 AERODYNAMIC BRAKES ON STALL-CONTROLLED ROTORS 300 8.8 LIGHTNING PROTECTION 302 8.9 ICE WARNING AND DE-ICING 303 REFERENCES 304 9 MECHANICAL DRIVE TRAIN AND NACELLE 305 9.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF POWER TRANSMISSION : 306 9.2 PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 309 9.2.1 GENERATOR IN THE TOWER BASE 310 9.2.2 VERTICALLY POSITIONED GENERATOR IN THE TOWER HEAD 310 9.3 CURRENT STANDARD DESIGNS 312 9.3.1 GEARBOX BETWEEN ROTOR AND GENERATOR 312 9.3.2 DIRECT ROTOR-DRIVEN GENERATOR 314 9.4 ROTOR HUB 318 9.4.1 CAST STEEL ROTOR HUBS FOR THREE-BLADE ROTORS 320 9.4.2 ROTOR HUB CONCEPTS FOR TWO-BLADED ROTORS 321 9.5 BLADE PITCH MECHANISM 325 9.5.1 ROTOR BLADE BEARINGS 327 9.5.2 BLADE PITCH SYSTEMS WITH HYDRAULIC DRIVE 329 9.5.3 ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN BLADE PITCH SYSTEMS 333 9.5.4 PASSIVE BLADE PITCHING 335 9.5.5 REDUNDANCY AND SAFETY ISSUES 336 9.6 ROTOR SHAFT AND BEARING ASSEMBLY 338 9.6.1 BEARING TECHNOLOGY 338 9.6.2 ROTOR SHAFT WITH SEPARATE BEARINGS 341 9.6.3 THREE-POINT SUSPENSION OF ROTOR SHAFT AND GEARBOX 343 9.6-4 ROTOR SHAFT INTEGRATED INTO THE GEARBOX 344 9.6.5 THE SINGLE-BEARING CONCEPT 345 9.6.6 ROTOR SUPPORT ON A FIXED AXLE 346 CONTENTS XI 9.7 ROTOR BRAKE 347 9.8 GEARBOX 350 9.8.1 GEARBOX CONFIGURATIONS 350 9.8.2 EXTERNAL LOAD SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE GEARBOX 354 9.8.3 INTERNAL GEARBOX DIMENSIONING AND DESIGN 357 9.8.4 EFFICIENCY AND NOISE EMISSION 358 9.9 VARIABLE-SPEED POWER-SPLITTING GEARBOXES 361 9.10 TORSIONAL FLEXIBILITY IN THE MECHANICAL DRIVE TRAIN 363 9.11 INSTALLATION OF THE ELECTRIC GENERATOR 366 9.12 NACELLE 368 9.12.1 AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 368 9.12.2 LOAD CARRYING CONCEPT 371 9.12.3 EXTERNAL SHAPE - AESTHETIC ASPECTS 374 9.13 YAW SYSTEM 377 9.14 ASSEMBLY AND FUNCTIONAL TESTING 3 80 REFERENCES 382 10 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 385 10.1 SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 386 10.1.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 386 10.1.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR 390 10.1.3 GENERATOR WITH PERMANENT EXCITATION 394 10.2 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR USING GENERATORS IN WIND TURBINES 398 10.3 FIXED-SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS 401 10.3.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 401 10.3.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 403 10.3.3 VARIABLE-SLIP INDUCTION GENERATOR 405 10.3.4 MULTI-SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS 406 10.4 VARIABLE SPEED GENERATOR SYSTEMS WITH INVERTER 408 10.4.1 FREQUENCY INVERTERS 409 10.4.2 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH INVERTER 411 10.4.3 INDUCTION GENERATOR WITH OVERSYNCHRONOUS CASCADE 413 10.4.4 DOUBLE-FED INDUCTION GENERATOR 414 10.5 DIRECTLY ROTOR-DRIVEN VARIABLE-SPEED GENERATORS 417 10.5.1 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH ELECTRIC EXCITATION 417 10.5.2 DIRECT-DRIVE GENERATORS WITH PERMANENT-MAGNET EXCITATION 419 10.6 COMPLETE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM OF A WIND TURBINE 421 10.6.1 LARGE TURBINES 421 10.6.2 SMALL WIND TURBINES 424 10.7 COMPARISON OF ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS 426 REFERENCES 428 11 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE 429 11.1 INPUT DATA MEASUREMENT 430 11.1.1 WIND MEASURING SYSTEM 431 11.1.2 MEASURING ELECTRIC POWER 434 11.1.3 OTHER INPUT DATA 435 XII CONTENTS 11.2 BASIC TECHNOLOGY OF CONTROLLERS 435 11.3 YAW CONTROL 437 11.4 POWER CONTROL WITH ROTOR BLADE PITCHING 438 11.4.1 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND ANALYTICAL DESIGN METHODS 440 11.4.2 FIXED-SPEED GENERATORS DIRECTLY COUPLED TO THE GRID 443 11.4.3 VARIABLE-SPEED OPERATION WITH FREQUENCY CONVERTER 448 11.4.4 ISOLATED OPERATION WITHOUT GRID 450 11.5 POWER LIMITING BY AERODYNAMIC STALL 452 11.5.1 PARALLEL-GRID OPERATION 452 11.5.2 ISOLATED OPERATION 453 11.5.3 ACTIVE STALL CONTROL 454 11.6 OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND SAFETY SYSTEM 457 11.6.1 OPERATIONAL STATES 457 11.6.2 SAFETY SYSTEM 459 11.7 CONTROL SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION 460 11.8 INTERACTION WITH THE GRID 462 REFERENCES 465 12 THE TOWER 467 12.1 TOWER CONFIGURATIONS 468 12.2 STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS DESIGN 471 12.3 TOWER DEMENSIONING CONFORMING TO GERMAN BUILDING REGULATIONS 473 12.4 FREE-STANDING TUBULAR-STEEL TOWERS 474 12.4.1 STIFFNESS AND STRUCTURAL MASS 474 12.4.2 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES AND CONSTRUCTION 477 12.4.3 CLIMBING AIDS AND INTERNAL INSTALLATIONS 480 12.5 LATTICE TOWERS 483 12.6 CONCRETE TOWERS 487 12.7 CONCRETE-STEEL HYBRID TOWERS 492 12.8 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TOWER CONCEPTS 494 12.9 INCREASING THE HEIGHT WITH DIFFERENT TOWER CONCEPTS 496 12.10 THE FOUNDATION 499 REFERENCES 503 13 THE WIND RESOURCE 505 13.1 CAUSES OF THE WIND AND OF THE POWER IN THE WIND 505 13.2 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF WIND RESOURCES 508 13.3 WIND RESOURCES IN EUROPE 516 13.4 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE WIND 517 13.4.1 MEAN ANNUAL WIND SPEED AND WIND SPEED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 517 13.4.2 INCREASE IN WIND SPEED WITH ALTITUDE 520 13.4.3 STEADINESS OF THE WIND 524 13.4.4 WIND TURBULENCE AND GUSTS 529 CONTENTS XIII 13.5 TOPOGRAPHY AND LOCAL WIND FLOW 532 13.6 MEASURING AND DETERMINING THE WIND SPEED 534 13.6.1 MEASURING TECHNIQUES 534 13.6.2 ASCERTAINING THE WIND DATA AND THE ENERGY YIELD FROM THE EUROPEAN WIND ATLAS 539 13.6.3 NUMERIC MODELS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL WIND FIELDS 542 13.7 ABOUT THE WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL 543 REFERENCES 547 14 POWER OUTPUT AND ENERGY YIELD 549 14.1 FROM ROTOR POWER CHARACTERISTICS TO TURBINE POWER CURVE 550 14.1.1 INSTALLED GENERATOR POWER AND ROTOR SPEED 550 14.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO POWER CONTROL AND OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE 554 14.1.3 EFFICIENCIES IN THE MECHANICAL-ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 557 14.1.4 POWER COEFFICIENTS OF TODAY S TURBINES 559 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE POWER CURVE 560 14.2.1 DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS AND WARRANTY 561 14.2.2 MEASURING THE POWER CURVE 563 14.3 SITE-RELATED INFLUENCES ON THE POWER CURVE 569 14.3.1 COMPLEX TERRAIN 569 14.3.2 AIR DENSITY 570 14.3.3 TURBULENCE 573 14.3.4 OTHER WEATHER-RELATED INFLUENCES 575 14.3.5 SOILING OF THE ROTOR BLADES 575 14.4 UNIFORMITY OF POWER OUTPUT 576 14.5 ANNUAL ENERGY YIELD 579 14.5.1 METHOD OF CALCULATION 579 14.5.2 APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF THE ENERGY YIELD 581 14.5.3 TECHNICAL AVAILABILITY 584 14.5.4 SAFETY DEDUCTIONS FOR ECONOMIC CALCULATIONS 588 14.6 WIND REGIME AND ENERGY YIELD 589 14.7 MAJOR DESIGN FEATURES AND ENERGY YIELD 591 14.7.1 ROTOR POWER COEFFICIENT 592 14.7.2 ROTOR DIAMETER 593 14.7.3 OPTIMAL ROTOR SPEED AND VARIABLE ROTOR SPEED OPERATION 594 14.7.4 POWER CONTROL: BLADE PITCH CONTRA STALL 597 14.7.5 INSTALLED GENERATOR POWER 598 14.7.6 ROTOR HUB HEIGHT 600 14.7.7 OPERATIONAL WIND SPEED RANGE 601 14.7.8 EFFICIENCY OF A WIND TURBINE AS ENERGY CONVERTER 602 REFERENCES 603 XIV CONTENTS 15 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 605 15.1 HAZARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT 606 15.1.1 HOW FAR CAN A ROTOR BLADE FLY? 606 15.1.2 SAFETY RISKS 609 15.2 WIND TURBINE NOISE 610 15.2.1 ACOUSTIC PARAMETERS AND PERMISSIBLE NOISE LEVELS 610 15.2.2 NOISE SOURCES IN WIND TURBINES 613 15.2.3 NOISE EMISSION OF CURRENT WIND TURBINES 617 15.3 SHADOW EFFECTS 622 15.4 INTERFERENCE WITH RADIO AND TELEVISION SIGNALS 625 15.5 IMPACT ON BIRD LIFE 628 15.6 LAND USE 629 15.7 VISUAL IMPACT ON THE LANDSCAPE 631 15.8 UTILISATION OF WIND ENERGY AND CLIMATE PROTECTION 633 15.8.1 EFFECT ON THE LOCAL CLI MATE 633 15.8.2 UTILISATION OF WIND POWER AND C0 2 EMISSIONS 634 REFERENCES 636 16 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF WIND TURBINES 637 16.1 STAND-ALONE WIND TURBINE APPLICATIONS 638 16.1.1 AUTONOMOUS POWER SUPPLY - STORAGE PROBLEMS 639 16.1.2 RESIDENTIAL HEATING WITH WIND ENERGY 645 16.1.3 PUMPING WATER 648 16.1.4 DESALINATION OF SEA WATER 650 16.2 SMALL GRIDS WITH DIESEL GENERATORS AND WIND TURBINES 653 16.3 WIND TURBINES CONNECTED WITH LARGE GRIDS 657 16.3.1 DISTRIBUTED WIND TURBINES OPERATED BY PRIVATE CONSUMERS 657 16.3.2 WIND PARK INSTALLATIONS 658 16.4 INTEGRATION INTO THE UTILITY GENERATION SYSTEM 662 16.4.1 OPERATIONAL STRATEGIES AND CONTROL ISSUES 663 16.4.2 ADAPTION OF THE UTILITY GRIDS TO RENEWABLE ENERGY UTILISATION ...665 16.4.3 CONTRIBUTION TO FIRM POWER 666 16.5 WIND TURBINE INDUSTRY AND MARKET 668 16.5.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARKETS 668 16.5.2 THE WIND TURBINE MANUFACTURERS 670 16.5.3 COMPONENTS INDUSTRY, SERVICE PROVIDERS AND BASIC RESEARCH 672 REFERENCES 675 17 OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY UTILISATION 677 17.1 IMPORTANT TECHNICAL ISSUES OF OFFSHORE SITING 678 17.1.1 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE WIND TURBINES 678 17.1.2 FOUNDATION ON THE SEA FLOOR 681 17.1.3 ELECTRICAL INFRASTRUCTURE 688 17.1.4 TRANSPORTATION AND INSTALLATION 694 CONTENTS XV 17.2 OPERATIONAL ISSUES OF OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES 697 17.2.1 ACCESSIBILITY AT POOR WEATHER CONDITIONS 697 17.2.2 SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE 699 17.3 OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY IN THE NORTH SEA AND IN THE BALTIC SEA 701 17.3.1 OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS AND WIND RESOURCES 701 17.3.2 LEGAL SITUATION 704 17.3.3 CRITERIA FOR THE PERMISSION 706 17.3.4 THE FIRST OFFSHORE WIND PARKS 708 17.3.5 COMMERCIAL OFFSHORE WIND PARKS 709 REFERENCES 718 18 WIND TURBINE INSTALLATION AND OPERATION 719 18.1 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT 720 18.1.1 SEARCH FOR A SITE AND ACQUISITION OF LAND LEASE AGREEMENTS 720 18.1.2 PREPLANNING AND BUILDING PERMISSION 721 18.2 TECHNICAL LAYOUT OF WIND PARK INSTALLATIONS 724 18.2.1 WIND TURBINE SPACING 725 18.2.2 INTERNAL ELECTRICAL CABLING 729 18.2.3 GRID CONNECTION 732 18.2.4 SITE PREPARATION AND BUILDING ACTIVITIES 738 18.3 TRANSPORTATION TO THE SITE 741 18.4 ERECTION ON THE SITE 745 18.4.1 STANDARD METHOD 745 18.4.2 ERECTION WITHOUT HEAVY LIFTING EQUIPMENT 749 18.4.3 EXTREMELY LARGE INSTALLATIONS 752 18.4.4 LARGE EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES WITH TWO-BLADED ROTOR 755 18.5 COMMISIONING 760 18.5.1 COMMERCIAL WIND TURBINES 760 18.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL TURBINES AND PROTOTYPES 761 18.6 OPERATION AND MONITORING 763 18.6.1 ACQUISITION OF OPERATIONAL DATA 763 18.6.2 MONITORING OF LARGE WIND PARKS 767 18.6.3 TECHNICAL CONDITION MONITORING 768 18.7 SAFETY ASPECTS 770 18.7.1 TECHNICAL SAFETY SYSTEMS 770 18.7.2 RISKS FROM EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS 775 18.8 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 779 18.8.1 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE 780 18.8.2 CAUSES OF DAMAGE AND REPAIR RISKS 781 18.8.3 STATISTICAL EVALUATIONS 785 REFERENCES 786 19 WIND TURBINE COSTS 789 19.1 MANUFACTURING COSTS AND SELLING PRICES OF WIND TURBINES 790 19.2 SPECIFIC COSTS AND REFERENCE PARAMETERS 791 XVI CONTENTS 19.2.1 STRUCTURAL MASSES AS A BASIS FOR DETERMINING THE MANUFACTURING COSTS 792 19.2.2 STRUCTURAL MASSES OF PRESENT WIND TURBINES 798 19.2.3 MANUFACTURING COST CALCULATION ON THE BASIS OF MASS-RELATED COST FIGURES 801 19.2.4 MANUFACTURING COSTS AND PRICE CALCULATION 803 19.2.5 DESIGN FEATURES AND MANUFACTURING COSTS 809 19.2.6 ECONOMY OF SCALE IN SERIES PRODUCTION 811 19.2.7 LOWERING COSTS THROUGH FURTHER TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT 813 19.2.8 ALTERNATIVE TECHNICAL CONCEPTS AND ACHIEVABLE COSTS 814 19.2.9 ON THE DEVELOPMENT COSTS OF WIND TURBINES 816 19.2.10 DEVELOPMENT OF SALES PRICES FOR WIND TURBINES 817 19.3 INVESTMENT COSTS FOR TURNKEY INSTALLATIONS 820 19.3.1 ACQUISITION OF THE PROJECT RIGHTS 820 19.3.2 TECHNICAL PLANNING AND APPLICATION FOR THE BUILDING PERMISSION 820 19.3.3 PROCUREMENT OF WIND TURBINES 821 19.3.4 TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE 822 19.3.5 ORGANISATIONAL COSTS 825 19.3.6 SELECTED EXAMPLES FOR TURN-KEY COSTS 826 19.4 OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS 829 19.4.1 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS 830 19.4.2 INSURANCES 832 19.4.3 OTHER OPERATING COSTS 833 19.4.4 TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS 834 19.5 OFFSHORE PROJECTS 834 19.5.1 INVESTMENT COSTS 834 19.5.2 OPERATING COSTS 841 REFERENCES 842 20 WIND TURBINE ECONOMICS 845 20.1 CORPORATE ORGANISATION OF THE PROJECT AND FINANCING 846 20.2 POWER PRODUCTION COSTS AND REPAYMENT PERIODS 848 20.2.1 BASICS FOR CALCULATING THE COSTS OF ELECTRICITY 849 20.2.2 STATIC ANNUITY APPROACH 850 20.2.3 OFFSHORE INSTALLATIONS 854 20.2.4 DYNAMIC CALCULATION OF ECONOMIC VIABILITY 857 20.2.5 CASH-FLOW PROJECTION 859 20.3 COMPETITION WITH CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES 863 20.4 ENERGY RECOVERY IN WIND TURBINES 866 20.5 THE EFFECT OF WIND ENERGY UTILISATION ON EMPLOYMENT 867 20.6 MACROECONOMIC FRAMEWORK AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES 868 REFERENCES 870 SUBJECT INDEX 871
any_adam_object	1
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discipline	Maschinenbau / Maschinenwesen Energietechnik
edition	3., transl. ed.
format	Book
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spellingShingle	Hau, Erich 1941- Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 gnd Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4128839-7 (DE-588)4079329-1 (DE-588)4189962-3
title	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics
title_alt	Windkraftanlagen
title_auth	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics
title_exact_search	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics
title_full	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau
title_fullStr	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau
title_full_unstemmed	Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Erich Hau
title_short	Wind turbines
title_sort	wind turbines fundamentals technologies application economics
title_sub	fundamentals, technologies, application, economics
topic	Windkraftwerk (DE-588)4128839-7 gnd Windenergie (DE-588)4079329-1 gnd Windturbine (DE-588)4189962-3 gnd
topic_facet	Windkraftwerk Windenergie Windturbine
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work_keys_str_mv	AT hauerich windkraftanlagen AT hauerich windturbinesfundamentalstechnologiesapplicationeconomics

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