Verfügbarkeit: Biochemistry | Technische Universität München

Biochemistry: a short course

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Beteiligte Personen:	Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 (VerfasserIn), Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- (VerfasserIn), Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	New York, NY [u.a.] Freeman 2013
Ausgabe:	International 2. ed.
Schlagwörter:	Biochemie Lehrbuch
Links:	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025118814&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
Umfang:	Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9781464104367 1464104360

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Brief Contents PARTI THE MOLECULAR DESIGN OF LIFE SECTION 1 Biochemistry Helps Us Understand Our World 1 Chapter 1 Biochemistry and the Unity of Life 3 Chapter 2 Water, Weak Bonds, and the Generation of Order Out of Chaos 17 section 2 Protein Composition and Structure 33 Chapters Amino Acids 35 Chapter 4 Protein Three-Dimensional Structure 45 section з Basic Concepts and Kinetics of Enzymes 67 Chapter 5 Basic Concepts of Enzyme Action 69 Chapter 6 Kinetics and Regulation 81 Chapter 7 Mechanisms and Inhibitors 99 Chapter 8 Hemoglobin, an Allosteric Protein 115 section 4 Carbohydrates and Lipids 129 Chapter 9 Carbohydrates 131 Chapter 10 Lipids 153 SECTION 5 Cell Membranes, Channels, Pumps, and Receptors 165 Chapter 11 Membrane Structure and Function 167 Chapter 12 Signal-Transduction Pathways 185 PART II TRANSDUCING AND STORING ENERGY SECTION б Basic Concepts and Design of Metabolism 205 Chapter 13 Digestion: Turning a Meal into Cellular Biochemicals 207 Chapter 14 Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design 217 SECTION 7 Glycolysis and Cluconeogenesis 239 Chapter 15 Glycolysis 241 Chapter 16 Gluconeogenesis 269 SECTION 8 The Citric Acid Cycle 385 Chapter 17 Preparation for the Cycle 387 Chapter 18 Harvesting Electrons from the Cycle 399 section 9 Oxidative Phosphorylation 317 Chapter 19 The Electron-Transport Chain 319 Chapter 20 The Proton-Motive Force 337 SECTION 10 The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis and the Calvin Cycle 355 Chapter 21 The Light Reactions 357 Chapter 22 The Calvin Cycle 375 section 11 Clycogen Metabolism and the Pentose Phospate Pathway 389 Chapter 23 Glycogen Degradation 391 Chapter 24 Glycogen Synthesis 403 Chapter 25 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway 417 SECTION 12 Fatty Acid and Lipid Metabolism 429 Chapter 26 Fatty Acid Degradation 431 Chapter 27 Fatty Acid Synthesis 447 Chapter 28 Lipid Synthesis: Storage Lipids, Phospholipids, and Cholesterol 461 section із The Metabolism of Nitrogen-Containing Molecules 485 Chapter 29 Amino Acid Degradation and the Urea Cycle 487 Chapter 30 Amino Acid Synthesis 505 Chapter31 Nucleotide Metabolism 519 PART III SYNTHESING THE MOLECULES OF LIFE SECTION 14 Nucleic Acid Structure and DNA Replication 537 Chapter 32 The Structure of Informational Macromolecules: DNA and RNA 539 Chapter 33 DNA Replication 559 Chapter 34 DNA Repair and Recombination 575 SECTION 15 RNA Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation 587 Chapter 35 RNA Synthesis and Regulation in Bacteria 589 Chapter 36 Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 605 Chapter 37 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes 619 SECTION 16 Protein Synthesis and Recombinant DNA Techniques 631 Chapter 38 The Genetic Code 633 Chapter 39 The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis 689 (Section 17 is online at www.whfreeman.com/tymoako2e) SECTIONS Experimental Biochemistry 667 Chapter 40 Techniques in Protein Biochemistry 669 Chapter 41 Recombinant DNA Techniques 693 xvi Contents PARTI THE MOLECULAR DESIGN OF LIFE SECTION 1 Biochemistry Helps Us Understand Our World 1 Chapter 1 Biochemistry and the Unity of Life 3 1.1 Living Systems Require a Limited Variety of Atoms and Molecules 4 1.2 There Are Four Major Classes of Biomolecules 5 Proteins Are Highly Versatile Biomolecule 5 Nucleic Acids Are the Information Molecules of the Cell 6 Lipids Are a Storage Form of Fuel and Serve As a Barrier 6 Carbohydrates Are Fuels and Informational Molecules 7 1.3 The Central Dogma Describes the Basic Principles of Biological Information Transfer 7 1.4 Membranes Define the Cell and Carry Out Cellular Functions 8 Biochemical Functions Are Sequestered in Cellular Compartments 11 Some Organelies Process and Sort Proteins and Exchange Material with the Environment 12 О Clinical Insight Defects in Organelle Function May Lead to Disease 14 Chapter 2 Water, Weak Bonds, and the Generation of Order Out of Chaos 17 2.1 Thermal Motions Power Biological Interactions 18 2.2 Biochemical Interactions Take Place in an Aqueous Solution 18 2.3 Weak Interactions Are Important Biochemical Properties 20 Electrostatic Interactions Are Between Electrical Charges 20 Hydrogen Bonds Form Between an Electronegative Atom and Hydrogen 21 van der Waals Interactions Depend on Transient Asymmetry in Electrical Charge 21 Weak Bonds Permit Repeated Interactions 22 2.4 Hydrophobie Molecules Cluster Together 22 Membrane Formation Is Powered by the Hydrophobie Effect 23 Protein Folding Is Powered by the Hydrophobie Effect 24 Functional Croups Have Specific Chemical Properties 24 2.5 pH Is an Important Parameter of Biochemical Systems 26 Water Ionizes to a Small Extent 26 An Acid Is a Proton Donor, Whereas a Base Is a Proton Acceptor 27 Acids Have Differing Tendencies to Ionize 27 Buffers Resist Changes in pH 28 Buffers Are Crucial in Biological Systems 29 new Making Buffers Is a Common Laboratory Practice 30 SECTION 2 Protein Composition and Structure 33 Chapter 3 Amino Acids 35 Two Different Ways of Depicting Biomolecules Will Be Used 35 3.1 Proteins Are Built from a Repertoire of 20 Amino Acids 36 Most Amino Acids Exist in Two Mirror-Image Forms 36 All Amino Acids Have at Least Two Charged Groups 36 3.2 Amino Acids Contain a Wide Array of Functional Croups 37 Hydrophobie Amino Acids Have Mainly Hydrocarbon Side Chains 37 Polar Amino Acids Have Side Chains That Contain an Electronegative Atom 39 Positively Charged Amino Acids Are Hydrophilic 40 Negatively Charged Amino Acids Have Acidic Side Chains 41 The lonizable Side Chains Enhance Reactivity and Bonding 41 3.3 Essential Amino Acids Must Be Obtained from the Diet 42 О Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions Result If Protein Intake Is Inadequate 42 Chapter 4 Protein Three-Dimensional Structure 45 4.1 Primary Structure: Amino Acids Are Linked by Peptide Bonds to Form Polypeptide Chains 46 Proteins Have Unique Amino Acid Sequences Specified by Genes 47 Polypeptide Chains Are Flexible Yet Conformationally Restricted 48 4.2 Secondary Structure: Polypeptide Chains Can Fold into Regular Structures 50 The Alpha Helix Is a Coiled Structure Stabilized by Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds 50 Beta Sheets Are Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonding Between Polypeptide Strands 51 Polypeptide Chains Can Change Direction by Making Reverse Turns and Loops 53 Fibrous Proteins Provide Structural Support for Cells and Tissues 53 Ö NEW Clinical Insight Defects in Collagen Structure Result in Pathological Conditions 55 4.3 Tertiary Structure: Water-Soluble Proteins Fold into Compact Structures 55 Myoglobin Illustrates the Principles of Tertiary Structure 55 The Tertiary Structure of Many Proteins Can Be Divided into Structural and Functional Units 57 4.4 Quaternary Structure: Multiple Polypeptide Chains Can Assemble into a Single Protein 57 XVII xviii Contents 4.5 The Amino Acid Sequence of a Protein Determines Its Three-Dimensional Structure Proteins Fold by the Progressive Stabilization of Intermediates Rather Than by Random Search new Some Proteins Are Inherently Unstructured and Can Exist in Multiple Conformations ШЇЛ Clinical Insight Protein Misfolding and Aggregation Are Associated with Some Neurological Diseases SECTION 3 Basic Concepts and Kinetics of Enzymes Chapter 5 Basic Concepts of Enzyme Action 5.1 Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts Proteolytic Enzymes Illustrate the Range of Enzyme Specificity new There Are Six Major Classes of Enzymes 58 59 60 61 5.2 Many Enzymes Require Cofactors for Activity 5.3 Free Energy Is a Useful Thermodynamic Function for Understanding Enzymes The Free-Energy Change Provides Information About the Spontaneity but Not the Rate of a Reaction The Standard Free-Energy Change of a Reaction Is Related to the Equilibrium Constant Enzymes Alter the Reaction Rate but Not the Reaction Equilibrium 5.4 Enzymes Facilitate the Formation of the Transition State The Formation of an Enzyme-Substrate Complex Is the First Step in Enzymatic Catalysis The Active Sites of Enzymes Have Some Common Features The Binding Energy Between Enzyme and Substrate Is Important for Catalysis Transition-State Analogs Are Potent Inhibitors of Enzyme Chapter 6 Kinetics and Regulation 6.1 Kinetics Is the Study of Reaction Rates 6.2 The Michaelis-Menten Model Describes the Kinetics of Many Enzymes О Clinical Insight Variations in KM Can Have Physiological Consequences /См and Vmax Values Can Be Determined by Several Means Km and Vmax Values Are Important Enzyme Characteristics Kcat /Км ls a Measure of Catalytic Efficiency Most Biochemical Reactions Include Multiple Substrates ■ 6.3 Allosteric Enzymes Are Catalysts and Information Sensors Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Products of the Pathways Under Their Control 67 69 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 74 75 76 76 77 77 81 82 83 84 85 85 86 87 88 88 Allosterically Regulated Enzymes Do Not Conform to Michaelis-Menten Kinetics 90 Allosteric Enzymes Depend on Alterations in Quaternary Structure 90 Regulator Molecules Modulate the R ^^ T Equilibrium 92 The Sequential Model Also Can Account for Allosteric Effects 92 El Clinical Insight Loss of Allosteric Control May Result in Pathological Conditions 93 6.4 Enzymes Can Be Studied One Molecule NEW at a Time 93 Chapter 7 Mechanisms and Inhibitors 99 7.1 A Few Basic Catalytic Strategies Are Used by Many Enzymes 99 7.2 Enzyme Activity Can Be Modulated by Temperature, pH, and Inhibitory Molecules 100 Temperature Enhances the Rate of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions 100 Most Enzymes Have an Optimal pH 101 Enzymes Can Be Inhibited by Specific Molecules 102 Reversible Inhibitors Are Kinetically Distinguishable 103 Irreversible Inhibitors Can Be Used to Map the Active Site 105 El Clinical Insight Penicillin Irreversibly Inactivates a Key Enzyme in Bacterial Cell-Wall Synthesis 106 7.3 Chymotrypsin Illustrates Basic Principles NEW of Catalysis and Inhibition 108 Serine 195 Is Required for Chymotrypsin Activity 108 Chymotrypsin Action Proceeds in Two Steps Linked by a Covalently Bound Intermediate 109 The Catalytic Role of Histidine 57 Was Demonstrated by Affinity Labeling 110 Serine Is Part of a Catalytic Triad That Includes Histidine and Aspartic Acid 110 Chapter 8 Hemoglobin, an Allosteric Protein 115 8.1 Hemoglobin Displays Cooperative Behavior 116 8.2 Myoglobin and Hemoglobin Bind Oxygen in Heme Groups 116 El Clinical Insight Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Reveals Regions of the Brain Posessing Sensory Information 118 8.3 Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively 118 8.4 An Allosteric Regulator Determines the Oxygen Affinity of Hemoglobin 120 О Clinical Insight Hemoglobin s Oxygen Affinity Is Adjusted to Meet Environmental Needs 120 H Biological Insight Hemoglobin Adaptations Allow Oxygen Transport in Extreme Environments 121 El Clinical Insight Sickle-Cell Anemia Is a Disease Caused by a Mutation in Hemoglobin 121 8.5 Hydrogen Ions and Carbon Dioxide Promote the Release of Oxygen 123 SECTION 4 Carbohydrates and Lipids 129 Chapter 9 Carbohydrates 131 9.1 Monosaccharides Are the Simplest Carbohydrates 132 Many Common Sugars Exist in Cyclic Forms 133 О Clinical Insight Cyclic Hemiacetal Formation Creates Another Asymmetric Carbon 135 Monosaccharides Are Joined to Alcohols and Amines Through Clycosidic Bonds 136 Ш new Biological Insight Clucosinolates Protect Plants and Add Flavor to Our Diets 137 9.2 Monosaccharides Are Linked to Form Complex Carbohydrates 137 Specific Enzymes Are Responsible for Oligosaccharide Assembly 137 Sucrose, Lactose, and Maltose Are the Common Disaccharides 138 Glycogen and Starch Are Storage Forms of Glucose 139 Cellulose, a Structural Component of Plants, Is Made of Chains of Glucose 139 9.3 Carbohydrates Are Attached to Proteins to Form Glycoproteins 141 Carbohydrates May Be Linked to Asparagine, Serine, or Threonine Residues of Proteins 141 О Clinical Insight The Hormone Erythropoietin Is a Clycoprotein 142 Proteoglycans, Composed of Polysaccharides and Protein, Have Important Structural Roles 142 О Clinical Insight Proteoglycans Are Important Components of Cartilage 143 Mucins Are Glycoprotein Components of Mucus 144 О Biological Insight Blood Groups Are Based on Protein Glycosylation Patterns 145 О Clinical Insight Lack of Glycosylation Can Result in Pathological Conditions 146 9.4 Lectins Are Specific Carbohydrate-Binding Proteins 146 Lectins Promote Interactions Between Cells 147 О Clinical Insight Lectins Facilitate Embryonic Development 147 О Clinical Insight Influenza Virus Binds to Sialic Acid Residues 147 Chapter 10 Lipids 153 10.1 Fatty Acids Are a Main Source of Fuel 154 Fatty Acids Vary in Chain Length and Degree of Unsaturation 155 The Degree and Type of Unsaturation Are Important to Health 156 10.2 Triacylglycerols Are the Storage Form of Fatty Acids 157 10.3 There Are Three Common Types of Membrane Lipids 158 Contents xix Phospholipids Are the Major Class of Membrane Lipids 158 Membrane Lipids Can Include Carbohydrates 160 Steroids Are Lipids That Have a Variety of Roles 160 О Biological Insight Membranes of Extremophiles Are Built from Ether Lipids with Branched Chains 161 Membrane Lipids Contain a Hydrophilic and a Hydrophobie Moiety 161 Some Proteins Are Modified by the Covalent Attachment of Hydrophobie Groups 162 О Clinical Insight Premature Aging Can Result from the Improper Attachment of a Hydrophobie Group to a Protein 163 SECTION 5 Cell Membranes, Channels, Pumps, and Receptors 165 Chapter 11 Membrane Structure and Function 167 11.1 Phospholipids and Glycolipids Form Bimolecular Sheets 168 О Clinical Insight Lipid Vesicles Can Be Formed from Phospholipids 169 Lipid Bilayers Are Highly Impermeable to Ions and Most Polar Molecules 169 11.2 Membrane Fluidity Is Controlled by Fatty Acid Composition and Cholesterol Content 170 11.3 Proteins Carry Out Most Membrane Processes 171 Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayer in a Variety of Ways 171 ШЛ Clinical Insight The Association of Prostaglandin H2 Synthase-I with the Membrane Accounts for the Action of Aspirin 173 11.4 Lipids and Many Membrane Proteins Diffuse Laterally in the Membrane 173 11.5 A Major Role of Membrane Proteins Is to Function As Transporters 174 The 1 1а+-ѓ^ АТРаѕе Is an Important Pump in Many Cells 175 О Clinical Insight Digitalis Inhibits the Na^lC1 Pump by Blocking Its Dephosphorylation 176 О Clinical Insight Multidrug Resistance Highlights a Family of Membrane Pumps with ATP-Binding Domains 176 О Clinical Insight Harlequin Ichthyosis Is a Dramatic Result of a Mutation in an ABC Transporter Protein 177 Secondary Transporters Use One Concentration Gradient to Power the Formation of Another 177 Specific Channels Can Rapidly Transport Ions Across Membranes 178 О new Biological Insight Venomous Pit Vipers Use Ion Channels to Generate a Thermal Image 178 The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel Reveals the Basis of Ion Specificity 179 The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel Explains Its Rapid Rate of Transport 180 XX Contents Chapter 12 Signal-Transduction Pathways 185 12.1 Signal Transduction Depends on Molecular Circuits 186 12.2 Receptor Proteins Transmit Information into the Cell 187 Seven-Transmembrane-Helix Receptors Change Conformation in Response to Ligand Binding and Activate G Proteins 187 Ligand Binding to 7TM Receptors Leads to the Activation of С Proteins 188 Activated G Proteins Transmit Signals by Binding to Other Proteins 189 Cyclic AMP Stimulates the Phosphorylation of Many Target Proteins by Activating Protein Kinase A 189 G Proteins Spontaneously Reset Themselves Through GTP Hydrolysis 190 О Clinical Insight Cholera and Whooping Cough Are Due to Altered G-Protein Activity 191 The Hydrolysis of Phosphatidylinositol Bisphosphate by Phospholipase С Generates Two Second Messengers 192 12.3 Some Receptors Dimerize in Response to Ligand Binding and Recruit Tyrosine Kinases 193 Receptor Dimerization May Result in Tyrosine Kinase Recruitment 193 Some Receptors Contain Tyrosine Kinase Domains Within Their Covalent Structures 194 Ras Belongs to Another Class of Signaling G Protein 196 12.4 Metabolism in Context: Insulin Signaling Regulates Metabolism 196 The Insulin Receptor Is a DimerThat Closes Around a Bound Insulin Molecule 197 The Activated Insulin-Receptor Kinase Initiates a Kinase Cascade 197 Insulin Signaling Is Terminated by the Action of Phosphatases 198 12.5 Calcium Ion Is a Ubiquitous Cytoplasmic Messenger 198 12.6 Defects in Signal-Transduction Pathways Can Lead to Disease 199 0 Clinical Insight The Conversion of Proto-oncogenes into Oncogenes Disrupts the Regulation of Cell Growth 199 О Clinical Insight Protein Kinase Inhibitors May Be Effective Anticancer Drugs 200 PART II TRANSDUCING AND STORING ENERGY SECTION 6 Basic Concepts and Design of Metabolism 205 Chapter 13 Digestion: Turning a Meal into Cellular Biochemicals 207 13.1 Digestion Prepares Large Biomolecules for Use in Metabolism 208 13.2 Proteases Digest Proteins into Amino Acids and Peptides 208 13.3 Dietary Carbohydrates Are Digested by Alpha-Amylase 210 13.4 The Digestion of Lipids Is Complicated by Their Hydrophobicity 211 IH Biological Insight Snake Venoms Digest from the Inside Out 212 13.5 Metabolism in Context: Cell Signaling new Facilitates Caloric Homeostasis 213 The Brain Plays a Key Role in Caloric Homeostasis 213 Signals from the Gastrointestinal Tract Induce Feelings of Satiety and Facilitate Digestion 214 Leptin and Insulin Regulate Long-Term Control of Caloric Homeostasis 214 Chapter 14 Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design 217 14.1 Metabolism Is Composed of Many Interconnecting Reactions 218 Metabolism Consists of Energy-Yielding Reactions and Energy-Requiring Reactions 219 AThermodynamically Unfavorable Reaction Can Be Driven by a Favorable Reaction 219 14.2 ATP Is the Universal Currency of Free Energy 220 ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic 220 ATP Hydrolysis Drives Metabolism by Shifting the Equilibrium of Coupled Reactions 221 The High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential of ATP Results from Structural Differences Between ATP and Its Hydrolysis Products 222 Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Is an Important Form of Cellular Energy Transformation 223 El Clinical Insight Exercise Depends on Various Means of Generating ATP 224 14.3 The Oxidation of Carbon Fuels Is an Important Source of Cellular Energy 225 Carbon Oxidation Is Paired with a Reduction 225 Compounds with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Can Couple Carbon Oxidation to ATP Synthesis 226 14.4 Metabolic Pathways Contain Many Recurring Motifs 227 Activated Carriers Exemplify the Modular Design and Economy of Metabolism 227 El Clinical Insight Lack of Activated Pantothenate Results in Neurological Problems 230 Many Activated.Carriers Are Derived from Vitamins 231 14.5 Metabolic Processes Are Regulated in Three Principal Ways 233 The Amounts of Enzymes Are Controlled 233 Catalytic Activity Is Regulated 234 The Accessibility of Substrates Is Regulated 234 SECTION 7 Clycolysis and Cluconeogenesis 239 Chapter 15 Glycolysis 241 15.1 Clycolysis Is an Energy-Conversion Pathway 242 Hexokinase Traps Glucose in the Cell and Begins Glycolysis 242 Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Is Generated from Glucose 6-phosphate 244 The Six-Carbon Sugar Is Cleaved into Two Three-Carbon Fragments 245 The Oxidation of an Aldehyde Powers the Formation of a Compound Having High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential 246 ATP Is Formed by Phosphoryl Transfer from U-Bisphosphoglycerate 247 Additional ATP Is Generated with the Formation of Pyruvate 248 Two ATP Molecules Are Formed in the Conversion of Glucose into Pyruvate 249 15.2 NAD+Is Regenerated from the Metabolism of Pyruvate 249 Fermentations Are a Means of Oxidizing NADH 249 Fermentations Provide Usable Energy in the Absence of Oxygen 252 15.3 Fructose and Galactose Are Converted into Glycolytic Intermediates 253 О Clinical Insight Many Adults Are Intolerant of Milk Because They Are Deficient in Lactase 255 El Clinical Insight Galactose Is Highly Toxic If the Transferase Is Missing 256 15.4 The Glycolytic Pathway Is Tightly Controlled 257 Glycolysis in Muscle Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition to Meet the Need for ATP 257 The Regulation of Glycolysis in the Liver Corresponds to the Biochemical Versatility of the Liver 258 A Family of Transporters Enables Glucose to Enter and Leave Animal Cells 261 ti Clinical Insight Cancer and Exercise Training Affect Glycolysis in a Similar Fashion 262 15.5 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis Helps Pancreatic Beta Cells Sense Glucose 263 Chapter 16 Cluconeogenesis 269 16.1 Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Noncarbohydrate Precursors 270 Gluconeogenesis Is Nota Complete Reversal of Glycolysis 270 The Conversion of Pyruvate into Phosphoenolpyruvate Begins with the Formation of Oxaloacetate 272 Oxaloacetate Is Shuttled into the Cytoplasm and Converted into Phosphoenolpyruvate 274 The Conversion of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into Fructose б -phosphate and Orthophosphate Is an Irreversible Step 274 The Generation of Free Glucose Is an Important Control Point 275 Contents XXI Six High-Transfer-Potential Phosphoryl Groups Are Spent in Synthesizing Glucose from Pyruvate 275 16.2 Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis Are Reciprocally Regulated 276 Energy Charge Determines Whether Glycolysis or Gluconeogenesis Will Be More Active 276 The Balance Between Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis in the Liver Is Sensitive to Blood-Glucose Concentration 277 О Clinical Insight Insulin Fausto Inhibit Gluconeogenesis in Type 2 Diabetes 279 Substrate Cycles Amplify Metabolic Signals 279 16.3 Metabolism in Context: Precursors Formed by Muscle Are Used by Other Organs 280 SECTION 8 The Citric Acid Cycle 285 Chapteri 7 Preparation for the Cycle 287 17.1 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Forms Acetyl Coenzyme A from Pyruvate 288 The Synthesis of Acetyl Coenzyme A from Pyruvate Requires Three Enzymes and Five Coenzymes 289 Flexible Linkages Allow Lipoamide to Move Between Different Active Sites 291 17.2 The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Is Regulated by Two Mechanisms 293 О Clinical Insight Defective Regulation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Results in Lactic Acidosis 294 О new Clinical Insight Enhanced Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase Activity Facilitates the Development of Cancer 295 El Clinical Insight The Disruption of Pyruvate Metabolism Is the Cause of Beriberi 295 Chapter18 Harvesting Electrons from the Cycle 299 18.1 The Citric Acid Cycle Consists of Two Stages 300 18.2 Stage One Oxidizes Two Carbon Atoms to Gather Energy-Rich Electrons 300 Citrate Synthase Forms Citrate from Oxaloacetate and Acetyl Coenzyme A 300 The Mechanism of Citrate Synthase Prevents Undesirable Reactions 301 Citrate Is Isomerized into Isocitrate 302 Isocitrate Is Oxidized and Decarboxylated to Alpha- Ketoglutarate 302 Succinyl Coenzyme A Is Formed by the Oxidative Decarboxylation of Alpha-Ketoglutarate 303 18.3 Stage Two Regenerates Oxaloacetate and Harvests Energy-Rich Electrons 303 A Compound with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Is Generated from Succinyl Coenzyme A 303 Succinyl Coenzyme A Synthetase Transforms Types of Biochemical Energy 304 Oxaloacetate Is Regenerated by the Oxidation of Succi nate 305 xxii Contents The Citric Acid Cycle Produces High-Transfer-Potential Electrons, a NucleosideTriphosphate, and Carbon Dioxide 305 18.4 The Citric Acid Cycle Is Regulated 308 The Citric Acid Cycle Is Controlled at Several Points 308 The Citric Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic Precursors 309 The Citric Acid Cycle Must Be Capable of Being Rapidly Replenished 309 О new Clinical Insight Defects in the Citric Acid Cycle Contribute to the Development of Cancer 310 18.5 The Clyoxylate Cycle Enables Plants and Bacteria to Convert Fats into Carbohydrates 310 SECTION 9 Oxidative Phosphorylation 317 Chapter 19 The Electron-Transport Chain 319 19.1 Oxidative Phosphorylation in Eukaryotes Takes Place in Mitochondria 320 Mitochondria Are Bounded by a Double Membrane 320 О Biological Insight Mitochondria Are the Result of an Endosymbiotic Event 321 19.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation Depends on Electron Transfer 322 The Electron-Transfer Potential of an Electron Is Measured As Redox Potential 322 Electron Flow Through the Electron-Transport Chain Creates a Proton Gradient 323 The Electron-Transport Chain Is a Series of Coupled Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 324 19.3 The Respiratory Chain Consists of Proton Pumps new and a Physical Link to the Citric Acid Cycle 327 The High-Potential Electrons of NADH Enter the Respiratory Chain at NADH-Q Oxidoreductase 327 Ubiquinol Is the Entry Point for Electrons from FADH2 of Flavoproteins 328 Electrons Flow from Ubiquinol to Cytochrome с Through Q-Cytochrome с Oxidoreductase 329 The Q Cycle Funnels Electrons from a Two-Electron Carrier to a One-Electron Carrier and Pumps Protons 329 Cytochrome с Oxidase Catalyzes the Reduction of Molecular Oxygen to Water 330 О Biological Insight The Dead Zone: Too Much Respiration 332 Toxic Derivatives of Molecular Oxygen Such As Superoxide Radical Are Scavenged by Protective Enzymes 333 Chapter 20 The Proton-Motive Force 337 20.1 A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP 338 ATP Synthase Is Composed of a Proton-Conducting Unit and a Catalytic Unit 339 Proton Flow Through ATP Synthase Leads to the Release of Tightly Bound ATP 340 Rotational Catalysis Is the World s Smallest Molecular Motor 341 Proton Flow Around the с Ring Powers ATP Synthesis 341 20.2 Shuttles Allow Movement Across Mitochondrial Membranes 343 Electrons from Cytoplasmic NADH Enter Mitochondria by Shuttles 343 The Entry of ADP into Mitochondria Is Coupled to the Exit of ATP 345 Mitochondrial Transporters Allow Metabolite Exchange Between the Cytoplasm and Mitochondria 346 20.3 Cellular Respiration Is Regulated by the Need for ATP 346 The Complete Oxidation of Glucose Yields About 30 Molecules of ATP 346 The Rate of Oxidative Phosphorylation Is Determined by the Need for ATP 347 EH new Biological Insight Regulated Uncoupling Leads to the Generation of Heat 348 Oxidative Phosphorylation Can Be Inhibited at Many Stages 350 О Clinical Insight Mitochondrial Diseases Are Being Discovered in Increasing Numbers 351 Power Transmission by Proton Gradients Is a Central Motif of Bioenergetics 351 SECTION 10 The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis and the Calvin Cycle 355 Chapter 21 The Light Reactions 357 21.1 Photosynthesis Takes Place in Chloroplasts 358 О Biological Insight Chloroplasts, Like Mitochondria, Arose from an Endosymbiotic Event 359 21.2 Photosynthesis Transforms Light Energy into Chemical Energy 359 Chlorophyll Is the Primary Receptor in Most Photosynthetic Systems 360 Light-Harvesting Complexes Enhance the Efficiency of Photosynthesis 361 ü Biological Insight Chlorophyll in Potatoes Suggests the Presence of a Toxin 363 21.3 Two Photosystems Cenerate a Proton Gradient and NADPH 363 Photosystem I Uses Light Energy to Generate Reduced Ferredoxin, a Powerful Reductant 364 Photosystem II Transfers Electrons to Photosystem I and Generates a Proton Gradient 365 Cytochrome bf Links Photosystem II to Photosystem I 366 The Oxidation of Water Achieves Oxidation-Reduction Balance and Contributes Protons to the Proton Gradient 366 21.4 A Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis 368 The ATP Synthase of Chloroplasts Closely Resembles That of Mitochondria 368 Contents XXIII Cyclic Electron Flow Through Photosystem I Leads to the Production of ATP Instead of NADPH 369 The Absorption of Eight Photons Yields One O2, Two NADPH, and Three ATP Molecules 370 The Components of Photosynthesis Are Highly Organized 370 Biological Insight Many Herbicides Inhibit the Light Reactions of Photosynthesis 371 Chapter 22 The Calvin Cycle 375 22.1 The Calvin Cycle Synthesizes Hexoses from Carbon Dioxide and Water 375 Carbon Dioxide Reacts with Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate to Form Two Molecules of S-Phosphoglycerate 376 Hexose Phosphates Are Made from Phosphoglycerate, and Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate Is Regenerated 377 Three Molecules of ATP and Two Molecules of NADPH Are Used to Bring Carbon Dioxide to the Level of a Hexose 380 IÜ Biological Insight A Volcanic Eruption Can Affect Photosynthesis Worldwide 380 Starch and Sucrose Are the Major Carbohydrate Stores in Plants 380 О Biological Insight Why Bread Becomes Stale: The Role of Starch 381 22.2 The Calvin Cycle Is Regulated by the Environment 382 Thioredoxin Plays a Key Role in Regulating the Calvin Cycle 382 Rubisco Also Catalyzes a Wasteful Oxygenase Reaction 383 The C4 Pathway of Tropical Plants Accelerates Photosynthesis by Concentrating Carbon Dioxide 384 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Permits Growth in Arid Ecosystems 386 Phosphorylase Kinase Is Activated by Phosphorylation and Calcium Ions 397 SECTION 11 Glycogen Metabolism and the Pentose Phospate Pathway 389 Chapter 23 Glycogen Degradation 39T 23.1 Glycogen Breakdown Requires Several Enzymes 392 Phosphorylase Cleaves Glycogen to Release Glucose 1 -phosphate 392 A Debranching Enzyme Also Is Needed for the Breakdown of Glycogen 393 Phosphoglucomutase Converts Glucose 1 -phosphate into Glucose 6-phosphate 394 Liver Contains Glucose 6-phosphatase, a Hydrolytic Enzyme Absent from Muscle 394 23.2 Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Allosteric Interactions and Reversible Phosphorylation 395 Muscle Phosphorylase Is Regulated by the Intracellular Energy Charge 396 Liver Phosphorylase Produces Glucose for Use by Other Tissues 396 Li Clinical Insight Hers Disease Is Due to a Phosphorylase Deficiency 398 23.3 Epinephrine and Clucagon Signal the Need for Glycogen Breakdown 398 G Proteins Transmit the Signal for the Initiation of Glycogen Breakdown 398 Glycogen Breakdown Must Be Rapidly Turned Off When Necessary 400 ül new Biological Insight Glycogen Depletion Coincides with the Onset of Fatigue 400 Chapter 24 Clycogen Synthesis 403 24.1 Glycogen Is Synthesized and Degraded by Different Pathways 403 UDP-Glucose Is an Activated Form of Glucose 404 Glycogen Synthase Catalyzes the Transfer of Glucose from UDP-Glucose to a Growing Chain 404 A Branching Enzyme Forms Alpha-1,6 Linkages 405 Glycogen Synthase Is the Key Regulatory Enzyme in Glycogen Synthesis 406 Glycogen Is an Efficient Storage Form of Glucose 406 24.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycogen Breakdown and Synthesis Are Reciprocally Regulated 407 Protein Phosphatase 1 Reverses the Regulatory Effects of Kinases on Glycogen Metabolism 407 Insulin Stimulates Glycogen Synthesis by Inactivating Glycogen Synthase Kinase 409 Glycogen Metabolism in the Liver Regulates the Blood-Glucose Level 409 U Clinical Insight Diabetes Mellitus Results from Insulin Insufficiency and Glucagon Excess 410 El Clinical Insight A Biochemical Understanding of Glycogen-Storage Diseases Is Possible 411 Chapter 25 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway 417 25.1 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Yields NADPH and Five-Carbon Sugars 418 Two Molecules of NADPH Are Generated in the Conversion of Glucose 6-phosphate into Ribulose 5-phosphate 418 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Glycolysis Are Linked by Transketolase and Transaldolase 418 25.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Are Coordinate^ Controlled 422 The Rate of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Is Controlled by the Level of NADP+ 422 The Fate of Glucose 6-phosphate Depends on the Need for NADPH, Ribose 5-phosphate, and ATP 422 25.3 Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Lessens Oxidative Stress 425 О Clinical Insight Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Causes a Drug-Induced Hemolytic Anemia 425 Ю Biological Insight A Deficiency of Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Confers an Evolutionary Advantage in Some Circumstances 426 XXIV Contents SECTION 12 Fatty Acid and Lipid Metabolism 429 Chapter 26 Fatty Acid Degradation 431 26.1 Fatty Acids Are Processed in Three Stages 431 NEW Triacylglycerols Are Hydrolyzed by Hormone- Stimulated Upases 432 Fatty Acids Are Linked to Coenzyme A Before They Are Oxidized 433 0 Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions Result If Fatty Acids Cannot Enter the Mitochondria 434 Acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2 Are Generated by Fatty Acid Oxidation 435 The Complete Oxidation of Palmitate Yields 106 Molecules of ATP 436 26.2 The Degradation of Unsaturated and Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Requires Additional Steps 437 An Isomerase and a Reductase Are Required for the Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 437 Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Yield Propionyl CoA in the Final Thiolysis Step 439 26.3 Ketone Bodies Are Another Fuel Source Derived from Fats 439 Ketone-Body Synthesis Takes Place in the Liver 439 Animals Cannot Convert Fatty Acids into Glucose 440 26.4 Metabolism in Context: Fatty Acid Metabolism Is a Source of Insight into Various Physiological States 441 Diabetes Can Lead to a Life-Threatening Excess of Ketone-Body Production 441 Ketone Bodies Are a Crucial Fuel Source During Starvation 442 Chapter 27 Fatty Acid Synthesis 447 27.1 Fatty Acid Synthesis Takes Place in Three Stages 448 Citrate Carries Acetyl Groups from Mitochondria to the Cytoplasm 448 Several Sources Supply NADPH for Fatty Acid Synthesis 449 The Formation of Malonyl CoA Is the Committed Step in Fatty Acid Synthesis 449 new Fatty Acid Synthesis Consists of a Series of Condensation, Reduction, Dehydration, and Reduction Reactions 450 The Synthesis of Palmitate Requires 8 Molecules of Acetyl CoA, 14 Molecules of NADPH, and 7 Molecules of ATP 452 Fatty Acids Are Synthesized by a Multifunctional Enzyme Complex in Animals 452 El Clinical Insight Fatty Acid Synthase Inhibitors May Be Useful Drugs 453 El Clinical Insight A Small Fatty Acid That Causes Big Problems 453 27.2 Additional Enzymes Elongate and Desaturate Fatty Acids 454 Membrane-Bound Enzymes Generate Unsaturated Fatty Acids 454 Eicosanoid Hormones Are Derived from Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 454 El Clinical Insight Aspirin Exerts Its Effects by Covalently Modifying a Key Enzyme 455 27.3 Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is a Key Regulator of Fatty Acid Metabolism 455 Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is Regulated by Conditions in the Cell 455 Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is Regulated by a Variety of Hormones 456 27.4 Metabolism in Context: Ethanol Alters Energy Metabolism in the Liver 457 Chapter 28 Lipid Synthesis: Storage Lipids, Phospholipids, and Cholesterol 461 28.1 Phosphatidate Is a Precursor of Storage Lipids and Many Membrane Lipids 461 Triacylglycerol Is Synthesized from Phosphatidate in Two Steps 462 Phospholipid Synthesis Requires Activated Precursors 462 Sphingolipids Are Synthesized from Ceramide 464 El Clinical Insight Gangliosides Serve As Binding Sites for Pathogens 465 О Clinical Insight Disrupted Lipid Metabolism Results in Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Тау -Sachs Disease 465 new PhosphatidicAcid Phosphatase Is a Key Regulatory Enzyme in Lipid Metabolism 466 28.2 Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl Coenzyme A in Three Stages 467 The Synthesis of Mevalonate Initiates the Synthesis of Cholesterol 467 Squalene (С30) Is Synthesized from Six Molecules of Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate (C5) 468 Squalene Cyclizes to Form Cholesterol 469 28.3 The Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis Takes Place at Several Levels 470 28.4 Lipoproteins Transport Cholesterol and Triacylglycerols Throughout the Organism 472 Low-Density Lipoproteins Play a Central Role in Cholesterol Metabolism 473 El Clinical Insight The Absence of the LDL Receptor Leads to Hypercholesterolemia and Atherosclerosis 474 El Clinical Insight HDL Seems to Protect Against Atherosclerosis 476 28.5 Cholesterol Is the Precursor of Steroid Hormones 476 Bile Salts Facilitate Lipid Absorption 476 Steroid Hormones Are Crucial Signal Molecules 476 Vitamin D Is Derived from Cholesterol by the Energy of Sunlight 477 El Clinical Insight Vitamin D Is Necessary for Bone Development 477 El Clinical Insight Androgens Can Be Used to Artificially Enhance Athletic Performance 478 Contents xxv Oxygen Atoms Are Added to Steroids by Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases 479 Metabolism in Context: Ethanol Also Is Processed by the Cytochrome P450 System 479 SECTION 13 The Metabolism of Nitrogen-Containing Molecules 485 Chapter 29 Amino Add Degradation and the Urea Cycle 487 29.1 Nitrogen Removal Is the First Step in the Degradation of Amino Acids 488 Alpha-Amino Groups Are Converted into Ammonium Ions by the Oxidative Deamination of Glutamate 488 Peripheral Tissues Transport Nitrogen to the Liver 489 29.2 Ammonium Ion Is Converted into Urea in Most Terrestrial Vertebrates 490 The Urea Cycle Is Linked to Gluconeogenesis 492 О Clinical Insight Metabolism in Context: Inherited Defects of the Urea Cycle Cause Hyperammonemia 493 HI new Biological Insight Hibernation Presents Nitrogen Disposal Problems 493 Ш Biological Insight Urea Is Not the Only Means of Disposing of Excess Nitrogen 494 29.3 Carbon Atoms of Degraded Amino Acids Emerge As Major Metabolic Intermediates 494 Pyruvate Is a Point of Entry into Metabolism 495 Oxaloacetate Is Another Point of Entry into Metabolism 496 Alpha-Ketoglutarate Is Yet Another Point of Entry into Metabolism 496 Succi nyl Coenzyme A Is a Point of Entry for Several Nonpolar Amino Adds 497 The Branched-Chain Amino Acids Yield Acetyl Coenzyme A, Acetoacetate, or Succi nyl Coenzyme A 497 Oxygenases Are Required for the Degradation of Aromatic Amino Acids 498 Methionine Is Degraded into Succinyl Coenzyme A 500 О Clinical Insight Inborn Errors of Metabolism Can Disrupt Amino Acid Degradation 500 Chapter 30 Amino Add Synthesis 505 30.1 The Nitrogenase Complex Fixes Nitrogen 506 The Molybdenum-Iron Cofactor of Nitrogenase Binds and Reduces Atmospheric Nitrogen 507 Ammonium Ion Is Incorporated into an Amino Acid Through Glutamate and Glutaminę 507 30.2 Amino Acids Are Made from Intermediates of Major Pathways 508 Human Beings Can Synthesize Some Amino Acids but Must Obtain Others from the Diet 509 Some Amino Acids Can Be Made by Simple Transamination Reactions 509 Serine, Cysteine, and Glycine Are Formed from S-Phosphoglycerate 510 Tetrahydrofolate Carries Activated One-Carbon Units 510 5-Adenosylmethionine Is the Major Donor of Methyl Groups 5П О Clinical Insight High Homocysteine Levels Correlate with Vascular Disease 512 30.3 Feedback Inhibition Regulates Amino Acid Biosynthesis 513 The Committed Step Is the Common Site of Regulation 513 Branched Pathways Require Sophisticated Regulation 513 Chapter 31 Nudeotide Metabolism 5Ί9 31.1 An Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis and Nomenclature. 520 31.2 The Pyrimidine Ring Is Assembled and Then Attached to a Ribose Sugar 521 CTP Is Formed by the Amination of UTP 522 Kinases Convert Nucleoside Monophosphates into NudeosideTriphosphates 523 NEW Salvage Pathways Recycle Pyrimidine Bases 523 31.3 The Purine Ring Is Assembled on Ribose Phosphate 524 AMP and GMP Are Formed from IMP Enzymes of the Purine-Synthesis Pathway Are Associated with One Another in Vivo Bases Can Be Recycled by Salvage Pathways 31.4 Ribonucleotides Are Reduced to Deoxyribonudeotides Thymidylate Is Formed by the Methylation of Deoxyuridylate О Clinical Insight Several Valuable Anticancer Drugs Block the Synthesis of Thymidylate NEW 31.5 Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition Pyrimidine Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Aspartate Transcarbamoylase The Synthesis of Purine Nudeotides Is Controlled by Feedback Inhibition at Several Sites The Synthesis of Deoxyribonudeotides Is Controlled by the Regulation of Ribonucleotide Reducíase 31.6 Disruptions in Nucleotide Metabolism Can Cause Pathological Conditions О Clinical Insight The Loss of Adenosine Deaminase Activity Results in Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Ш Clinical Insight Gout Is Induced by High Serum Levels of Urate 524 524 526 527 527 528 529 529 530 530 531 532 532 Clinical Insight Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Is a Dramatic Consequence of Mutations in a Salvage-Pathway Enzyme 533 NEW Clinical Insight Folie Acid Deficiency Promotes Birth Defects Such As Spina Bifida 533 XXVI Contents PART III SYNTHESINC THE MOLECULES OF LIFE SECTION 14 Nucleic Acid Structure and DNA Replication 537 Chapter 32 The Structure of Informational Macromolecules: DNA and RNA 32.1 539 A Nucleic Acid Consists of Bases Linked to a Sugar-Phosphate Backbone 540 DNA and RNA Differ in the Sugar Component and One of the Bases 540 Nudeotides Are the Monomeric Units of Nucleic Acids 541 DNA Molecules Are Very Long and Have Directionality 542 32.2 Nucleic Acid Strands Can Form a Double-Helical Structure 543 The Double Helix Is Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonds and the Hydrophobie Effect 543 The Double Helix Facilitates the Accurate Transmission of Hereditary Information 545 Meselson and Stahl Demonstrated That Replication Is Semiconservative 545 The Strands of the Double Helix Can Be Reversibly Separated 547 32.3 DNA Double Helices Can Adopt Multiple Forms 547 Z-DNA Is a Left-Handed Double Helix in Which Backbone Phosphoryl Croups Zigzag 548 The Major and Minor Grooves Are Lined by Sequence-Specific Hydrogen-Bonding Croups 549 Double-Stranded DNA Can Wrap Around Itself to Form Supercoiled Structures 549 32.4 Eukaryotic DNA Is Associated with Specific Proteins 551 Nudeosomes Are Complexes of DNA and Histones 551 Eukaryotic DNA Is Wrapped Around Histones to Form Nudeosomes 552 11 Clinical Insight Damaging DNA Can Inhibit Cancer-Cell Growth 554 32.5 RNA Can Adopt Elaborate Structures 554 Chapter 33 DNA Replication 559 33.1 DNA Is Replicated by Polymerases 560 DNA Polymerase Catalyzes Phosphodiester-Linkage Formation 560 new The Specificity of Replication Is Dictated by the Complementarity of Bases 562 new The Separation of DNA Strands Requires Specific Helicases and ATP Hydrolysis 562 Topoisomerases Prepare the Double Helix for Unwinding 564 О Clinical Insight Bacterial Topoisomerase Is a Therapeutic Target 564 Many Polymerases Proofread the Newly Added Bases and Excise Errors 565 33.2 DNA Replication Is Highly Coordinated 566 DNA Replication in Escherichia coli Begins at a Unique Site 566 An RNA Primer Synthesized by Primase Enables DNA Synthesis to Begin 566 One Strand of DNA Is Made Continuously and the Other Strand Is Synthesized in Fragments 567 DNA Replication Requires Highly Processive Polymerases 567 The Leading and Lagging Strands Are Synthesized in a Coordinated Fashion 568 DNA Synthesis Is More Complex in EukaryotesThan in Bacteria 570 Telomeres Are Unique Structures at the Ends of Linear Chromosomes 570 О Clinical Insight Telomeres Are Replicated by Telomerase, a Specialized Polymerase That Carries Its Own RNA Template 571 Chapter 34 DNA Repair and Recombination 575 34.1 Errors Can Arise in DNA Replication 576 О Clinical Insight Some Genetic Diseases Are Caused by the Expansion of Repeats of Three Nudeotides 576 Bases Can Be Damaged by Oxidizing Agents, Alkylating Agents, and Light 577 34.2 DNA Damage Can Be Detected and Repaired 579 The Presence of Thymine Instead of Uracil in DNA Permits the Repair of Deaminated Cytosine 581 О Clinical Insight Many Cancers Are Caused by the Defective Repair of DNA 581 fl Clinical Insight Many Potential Carcinogens Can Be Detected by Their Mutagenic Action on Bacteria 582 34.3 DNA Recombination Plays Important Roles in Replication and Repair 583 NEW Double Strand Breaks Can Be Repaired by Recombination 583 DNA Recombination Is Important in a Variety of Biological Processes 584 SECTION 15 RNA Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation 587 Chapter 35 RNA Synthesis and Regulation in Bacteria 589 35.1 Cellular RNA Is Synthesized by RNA Polymerases 589 new Genes Are the Transcriptional Units 590 RNA Polymerase Is Composed of Multiple Subunits 591 35.2 RNA Synthesis Comprises Three Stages 591 Transcription Is Initiated at Promoter Sites on the DNA Template 591 Sigma Subunits of RNA Polymerase Recognize Promoter Sites 592 RNA Strands Grow in the 5Чо-3 Direction 593 Elongation Takes Place at Transcription Bubbles That Move Along the DNA Template 594 An RNA Hairpin Followed by Several Uracil Residues Terminates the Transcription of Some Genes 594 The Rho Protein Helps Terminate the Transcription of Some Genes 595 Precursors of Transfer and Ribosomal RNA Are Cleaved and Chemically Modified After Transcription 596 О Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Transcription 597 35.3 The lac Operon Illustrates the Control of Bacterial Gene Expression 598 An Operon Consists of Regulatory Elements and Protein-Encoding Genes 598 Ligand Binding Can Induce Structural Changes in Regulatory Proteins 599 Transcription Can Be Stimulated by Proteins That Contact RNA Polymerase 599 О new Clinical and Biological Insight Many Bacterial Cells Release Chemical Signals That Regulate Gene Expression in Other Cells 600 new Some Messenger RNAs Directly Sense Metabolite Concentrations 600 Chapter 36 Gene Expression in Eu kary otes 605 36.1 Eukaryotic Cells Have Three Types of RNA Polymerases 606 36.2 RNA Polymerase II Requires Complex Regulation 608 The TFIID Protein Complex Initiates the Assembly of the Active Transcription Complex 609 Enhancer Sequences Can Stimulate Transcription at Start Sites Thousands of Bases Away 609 О Clinical Insight Inappropriate Enhancer Use May Cause Cancer 610 Multiple Transcription Factors Interact with Eukaryotic Promoters and Enhancers 610 О new Clinical Insight Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Can Be Generated by Introducing Four Transcription Factors into Differentiated Cells 610 36.3 Gene Expression Is Regulated by Hormones 611 Nuclear Hormone Receptors Have Similar Domain Structures 611 Nuclear Hormone Receptors Recruit Coactivators and Corepressors 612 О Clinical Insight Steroid-Hormone Receptors Are Targets for Drugs 613 36.4 Histone Acetylation Results in Chromatin Remodeling 614 new Metabolism in Context: Acetyl CoA Plays a Key Role in the Regulation of Transcription 614 Histone Deacetylases Contribute to Transcriptional Repression 616 Chapter 37 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes 619 37.1 Mature Ribosomal RNA Is Generated by the Cleavage of a Precursor Molecule 620 37.2 Transfer RNA Is Extensively Processed 620 37.3 Messenger RNA Is Modified and Spliced 621 Sequences at the Ends of Introns Specify Splice Sites in mRNA Precursors 622 Small Nuclear RNAs in Spliceosomes Catalyze the Splicing of mRNA Precursors 623 Contents xxvii El Clinical Insight Mutations That Affect Pre-mRNA Splicing Cause Disease 624 Kl Clinical Insight Most Human Pre-mRNAs Can Be Spliced in Alternative Ways to Yield Different Proteins 625 NEW The Transcription and Processing of mRNA Are Coupled 625 RNA Editing Changes the Proteins Encoded by mRNA 626 37.4 RNA Can Function As a Catalyst 627 SECTION 1 б Protein Synthesis and Recombinant DNA Techniques 631 633 Chapter 38 The Genetic Code 38.1 The Genetic Code Links Nucleic Acid and Protein Information 634 The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal 634 Transfer RNA Molecules Have a Common Design 635 Some Transfer RNA Molecules Recognize More Than One Codon Because of Wobble in Base-Pairing 637 The Synthesis of Long Proteins Requires a Low Error Frequency 638 38.2 Amino Acids Are Activated by Attachment to Transfer RNA 638 Amino Acids Are First Activated by Adenylation 639 Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Have Highly Discriminating Amino Acid Activation Sites 640 Proofreading by Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Increases the Fidelity of Protein Synthesis 640 Synthetases Recognize the Anticodon Loops and Acceptor Stems of Transfer RNA Molecules 640 38.3 A Ribosome Is a Ribonucleoprotein Particle Made of Two Subunits 641 Ribosomal RNAs Play a Central Role in Protein Synthesis 641 Messenger RNA Is Translated in the бЧо-З Direction 642 Chapter 39 The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis 647 39.1 Protein Synthesis Decodes the Information in Messenger RNA 647 Ribosomes Have Three tRNA-Binding Sites That Bridge the 30S and 50S Subunits 648 The Start Signal Is AUG (or GUG) Preceded by Several Bases That Pair with 16S Ribosomal RNA 648 Bacterial Protein Synthesis Is Initiated by Formylmethionyl Transfer RNA 649 Formylmethionyl-tRNAf Is Placed in the Ρ Site of the Ribosome in the Formation of the 70S Initiation Complex 650 Elongation Factors Deliver Aminoacyl-tRNA to the Ribosome 650 39.2 Peptidyl Transferase Catalyzes Peptide-Bond Synthesis 651 The Formation of a Peptide Bond Is Followed by the GTP-Driven Translocation of tRNAs and mRNA 651 Protein Synthesis Is Terminated by Release Factors That Read Stop Codons 653 xxviii Contents 39.3 Bacteria and Eukaryotes Differ in the Initiation of Protein Synthesis 654 U Clinical Insight Mutations in Initiation Factor 2 Cause a Curious Pathological Condition 655 39.4 A Variety of Biomolecules Can Inhibit Protein Synthesis 656 О Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Protein Synthesis 656 О Clinical Insight Diphtheria Toxin Blocks Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes by Inhibiting Translocation 657 Q Clinical Insight Ricin Fatally Modifies 28S Ribosomal RNA 658 39.5 Ribosomes Bound to the Endoplasmic Reticulum new Manufacture Secretory and Membrane Proteins 658 Protein Synthesis Begins on Ribosomes That Are Free in the Cytoplasm 659 Signal Sequences Mark Proteins for Translocation Across the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane 659 39.6 Protein Synthesis Is Regulated by a Number of Mechanisms 660 Messenger RNA Use Is Subject to Regulation 660 The Stability of Messenger RNA Also Can Be Regulated 661 Small RNAs Can Regulate mRNA Stability and Use 661 (Section 17 isonlineatwww.whfreeman.com/tymoczko2e) SECTION 17 Experimental Biochemistry 667 Chapter 40 Techniques in Protein Biochemistry 669 40.1 The Proteome Is the Functional Representation of the Genome 670 40.2 The Purification of a Protein Is the First Step in Understanding Its Function 670 Proteins Can Be Purified on the Basis of Differences in Their Chemical Properties 671 Proteins Must Be Removed from the Cell to Be Purified 671 Proteins Can Be Purified According to Solubility, Size, Charge, and Binding Affinity 672 Proteins Can Be Separated by Gel Electrophoresis and Displayed 674 A Purification Scheme Can Be Quantitatively Evaluated 677 40.3 Immunological Techniques Are Used to Purify and Characterize Proteins 678 Centrifugation Is a Means of Separating Proteins 678 Gradient Centrifugation Provides an Assay for the Estrad¡ol-Receptor Complex 679 Antibodies to Specific Proteins Can Be Generated 680 Monoclonal Antibodies with Virtually Any Desired Specificity Can Be Readily Prepared 681 The Estrogen Receptor Can Be Purified by Immunoprecipitation 683 Proteins Can Be Detected and Quantified with the Use of an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Western Blotting Permits the Detection of Proteins Separated by Gel Electrophoresis 40.4 Determination of Primary Structure Facilitates an Understanding of Protein Function Amino Acid Sequences Are Sources of Many Kinds of Insight 684 684 686 688 693 Chapter 41 Recombinant DNA Techniques 41.1 Reverse Genetics Allows the Synthesis of Nucleic Acids from a Protein Sequence 693 Protein Sequence Is a Guide to Nucleic Acid Information 694 DNA Probes Can Be Synthesized by Automated Methods 694 41.2 Recombinant DNA Technology Has Revolutionized All Aspects of Biology 695 Restriction Enzymes Split DNA into Specific Fragments 696 Restriction Fragments Can Be Separated by Gel Electrophoresis and Visualized 696 Restriction Enzymes and DNA Ligase Are Key Tools for Forming Recombinant DNA Molecules 697 41.3 Eukaryotic Genes Can Be Manipulated with Considerable Precision 698 Complementary DNA Prepared from mRNA Can Be Expressed in Host Cells 698 Estrogen-Receptor cDNA Can Be Identified by Screening a cDNA Library 699 Complementary DNA Libraries Can Be Screened for Synthesized Protein 700 Specific Genes Can Be Cloned from Digests of Genomic DNA 701 DNA Can Be Sequenced by the Controlled Termination of Replication 701 El Clinical and Biological Insight Next-Generation Sequencing Methods Enable the Rapid Determination of a Whole Genome Sequence 703 Selected DNA Sequences Can Be Greatly Amplified by the Polymerase Chain Reaction 704 О Clinical and Biological Insight PCR Is a Powerful Technique in Medical Diagnostics, Forensics, and Studies of Molecular Evolution 706 NEW Gene-Expression Levels Can Be Comprehensively Examined Appendices Glossary Answers to Problems Index Selected Readings (online at www.whfreeman.com/tymoczko2e) 706 Al Bl Cl Dl El
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author	Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024
author_GND	(DE-588)124601103 (DE-588)12460109X (DE-588)124601197
author_facet	Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024
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author_sort	Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019
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dewey-hundreds	500 - Natural sciences and mathematics
dewey-ones	572 - Biochemistry
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discipline	Chemie / Pharmazie Biologie
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genre_facet	Lehrbuch
id	DE-604.BV040263080
illustrated	Illustrated
indexdate	2024-12-20T16:11:06Z
institution	BVB
isbn	9781464104367 1464104360
language	English
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025118814
oclc_num	891000348
open_access_boolean
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physical	Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst.
publishDate	2013
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publishDateSort	2013
publisher	Freeman
record_format	marc
spellingShingle	Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 Biochemistry a short course Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4006777-4 (DE-588)4123623-3
title	Biochemistry a short course
title_auth	Biochemistry a short course
title_exact_search	Biochemistry a short course
title_full	Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer
title_fullStr	Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer
title_full_unstemmed	Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer
title_short	Biochemistry
title_sort	biochemistry a short course
title_sub	a short course
topic	Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd
topic_facet	Biochemie Lehrbuch
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025118814&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT tymoczkojohnl biochemistryashortcourse AT bergjeremym biochemistryashortcourse AT stryerlubert biochemistryashortcourse

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